Cloud effects on erythemal UV radiation in a complex topography
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- Friedrich Solberg
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1 Diss. ETH No Cloud effects on erythemal UV radiation in a complex topography A dissertation submitted to the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich for the degree of Doctor of Sciences presented by Daniel Walker Dipl. Natw. ETH born 10 August 1976 citizen of Winterthur (ZH) accepted on the recommendation of Prof. Dr. U. Lohmann, examiner Prof. Dr. S. Brönnimann, co-examiner Dr. L. Vuilleumier, co-examiner Prof. Dr. M. Blumthaler, co-examiner 2009
2 Abstract UV radiation is part of the solar spectrum with wavelengths between 100 and 400 nm. In this study, erythemal UV is investigated; a measure directly related to the harmfulness of solar radiation to our skin. UV radiation has important impacts on different ecosystems, life and also on public health. Therefore, detailed information about the spatial distribution of UV radiation and its temporal evolution is required. Since observations are spatially and temporally sparse, these issues are often approached by radiative transfer modeling. These models perform well for simulating UV radiation for clear-sky conditions, but it is far more difficult for them to capture the short-term variability due to a rapidly changing cloud cover. The main research topic of the presented thesis concerns cloud effects on UV radiation at four stations in the complex Swiss topography. These stations contribute to the new SACRaM (Swiss Alpine Climate Radiation Monitoring) network and are situated in regions with different climate conditions. The effect of clouds on UV is inferred using observed total solar radiation (SW), which is commonly measured in operational networks. The use of SW radiation and the assessment of the impacts of local environmental conditions on the method enable its application at many locations and for long time periods. The relationship between atmospheric UV and SW transmission was derived using cloud modification factors (CMFs), parameterized separately for strong and weak cloud attenuation using two linear regressions. The analysis of the dependencies of the shape of this parameterization demonstrated that the solar zenith angle (SZA) is the environmental factor with the strongest impact. Furthermore, the derived relationship was physically interpreted incorporating radiative transfer theory and modeling exercises. The results of these studies and the theoretical principles are confirmed by our observations and semiempiric relationship: the transmission through clouds is generally larger for UV than for SW radiation. However, differences in cloud effects for strong overcast cloud cover and scattered clouds with weaker attenuation were found. For overcast conditions, a change in cloud optical depth provoked stronger variation in the CMF UV than in CMF SW. The same changes for scattered conditions lead to larger changes in SW radiation. These effects are more pronounced for large solar zenith angles. A comparison with the results of a pure modeling based approach provided further indications about the general applicability of the derived method and the possibility to use the parameterization also at other locations without further adaptation. Clear-sky radiative transfer is important for investigating the effects of clouds since it allows determining their impacts on the atmospheric transmission in a cloudy atmosphere. The validation of the radiative transfer model estimating clear-sky radiation revealed a iii
3 good agreement with observed UV between mw m 2 (5 7%) and the correspondence for SW was even higher with RMS of W m 2 (3 4%). Linear regression models of modeled vs. observed clear-sky radiation yielded slopes close to one, i.e for UV and for SW radiation. In addition, modeling atmospheric irradiance requires information about the average surface reflectivity around the point of interest. The surface reflectance is mainly determined by the presence of snow, especially for UV radiation. Therefore, the spatial distribution and temporal evolution of the regional snow cover in Switzerland was investigated in more details. Snow depth observations at 125 stations in combination with a digital elevation model were used for deriving spatial snow cover information within five different regions in Switzerland back to The resulting daily snow distributions were cross-validated against snow observations over 28 years and compared to satellite snow-masks within 4 case studies. Probability of detections of 0.96 and false alarm rates of 0.15 were found in the cross-validation, while the agreement with the satellite reached values between 69 and 97%. Reconstructed time-series of regional snow cover were tested for temporal trends. In the lowlands north of the Alps, a significant decrease between -10 and -15% was found over the last 28 years. The temporal evolutions in the other, more elevated alpine regions were also negative, but smaller and statistically not significant. Since the derived relationship between CMF UV and CMF SW mainly depends on SZA and not on the location, it can be used for estimating all-sky UV radiation for time periods when and also at other locations where the necessary input data (ozone, albedo, and observed SW radiation) is available. The validation of estimated against measured UV radiation at the four SACRaM stations showed a very good agreement with RMS errors between 4.3 and 6.9 mw m 2 (9 12%) for high temporal resolution of 10 minutes. Aggregated daily doses corresponded even better to observations (RMS < 8%). This generalized relationship was used for reconstructing erythemal UV radiation at the four stations back to 1981 for trend analysis. The strongest increase of UV radiation was found during the months of the first half-year with maximal decadal trends of % in March, depending on the station. Over the whole 27-years period, the UV-Index increased for May and June between 0.54 and The trends for the months of the second half year are small and mostly not statistically significant.
4 Zusammenfassung UV-Strahlung ist Teil des Sonnenspektrums mit Wellenlängen zwischen 100 bis 400 nm. In unserer Studie untersuchen wir die erythemale UV-Strahlung, welche ein direktes Mass für deren Schädlichkeit für unsere Haut darstellt. UV-Strahlung hat weitreichende Auswirkungen auf verschiedene Ökosysteme, Lebewesen und auf unsere Gesundheit. Wir möchten daher mehr über die räumlichen und zeitlichen Charakteristiken der UV-Strahlung erfahren. Da jedoch die beobachteten Zeitreihen spärlich sind, wird diesen Fragen häufig mit Strahlungstransfer Modellen (RTM) begegnet. Solche Modelle zeigen sehr gute Resultate für wolkenfreie Situationen. Die Simulation von kurzzeitigen Wolkeneffekten ist jedoch um ein Vielfaches schwieriger. Der Hauptteil der vorgelegten Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit Wolkeneffekten auf die erythemale UV-Strahlung an vier Stationen in der komplexen Topography der Schweiz. Diese Stationen sind Teil des neuen SACRaM (Swiss Alpine Climate Radiation Monitoring) Messnetzes und befinden sich in Regionen mit sehr unterschiedlichen Klimabedingungen. Wolkeneffekte auf UV-Strahlung werden mittels beobachteter Sonnenstrahlung (SW) hergeleitet; einer Grösse, welche häufig von operationellen Wetterstationen gemessen wird. Die Verwendung von SW-Strahlung und das Abschätzen der lokalen Umwelteinflüsse auf die Methode erlauben deren Anwendung an vielen Stationen und über lange Zeiträume. Die Beziehung zwischen der atmosphärischen Transmission von UV und SW-Strahlung wurde mittels cloud modification factors (CMFs) hergeleitet und mit zwei separaten linearen Regressionen für starke und leichte Bewölkung beschrieben. Die Analyse der Abhängigkeiten dieser Beziehung von verschiedenen Umweltfaktoren zeigte, dass der Sonnenstand den grössten Einfluss auf deren Form ausübt. Die Charakteristiken der Beziehung wurden unter Miteinbezug von Strahlungstransfer-Theorie und früheren Modellstudien auf ihre physikalische Bedeutung hin interpretiert. Diese theoretischen und modellbasierten Grundlagen sind in Übereinstimmung mit unseren Beobachtungen: Die Transmission von Wolken ist generell grösser im UV Bereich als für SW-Strahlung. Es wurden jedoch Unterschiede zwischen geschlossener Wolkenbedeckung und aufgelockerter Bewölkung mit geringerer Strahlungsabschwächung gefunden. Für die geschlossene Wolkendecke führt eine Veränderung in der optischen Dicke der Wolken zu grösseren Änderungen für CMF UV als für CMF SW. Die gleiche Veränderung der optischen Dicke bei aufgelockerter Bewölkung führt hingegen zu grösseren Änderungen im SW Bereich. Diese Effekte verstärken sich im Allgemeinen für tiefe Sonnenstände. Die Resultate eines direkten Vergleichs der Beziehung mit einem rein modellbasierten Ansatz ergaben weitere Hinweise auf die Möglichkeit, die hergeleitete Methode ohne weitere Anpassungen auch an anderen Orten einzusetzen. v
5 Für die Bestimmung von Wolkeneffekten ist der Strahlungstransfer für wolkenfreie Situationen wichtig, da dieser Aussagen über den Einfluss von Wolken auf die Transmissivität einer bewölkten Atmosphäre erlaubt. Die Validation des RTM zeigte im UV Bereich mittlere Abweichungen (RMS) zu Messungen von mw m 2 (5 7%) und für SW W m 2 (3 4%). Lineare Regressionsmodelle zwischen dem Modell und den Beobachtungsdaten ergaben Steigungen zwischen (UV) und (SW). Die Modellierung atmosphärischer Strahlung benötigt Informationen zur Bodenreflektivität. Die Schneebedeckung ist die wichtigste Grösse zur Bestimmung der Albedo, dies gilt im Speziellen für die UV-Strahlung. Aus diesem Grund wurde die räumliche Schneeverteilung und deren zeitliche Entwicklung in der Schweiz untersucht. Schneemessungen an 125 Stationen wurden mit einem digitalen Geländemodell kombiniert um die räumliche Schneebedeckung in fünf Regionen der Schweiz zurück bis 1980 zu ermitteln. Die modellierten Scheeverteilungen wurden über 28 Jahre mit Schneebeobachtungen validiert und in vier Fallstudien mit Satellitendaten verglichen. Die Validierung zeigte Nachweiswahrscheinlichkeiten (POD) von 0.96 und Fehlalarmraten (FAR) von 0.15, während der Satellitenvergleich mittlere Übereinstimmungen zwischen 69 97% ergab. Die rekonstruierte Schneebedeckung wurde auf zeitliche Veränderungen untersucht. Für das Schweizer Mittelland resultierte eine signifikante Abnahme der Schneebedeckung zwischen -10 und -15% seit Die Trends in den höher gelegenen, alpinen Regionen sind kleiner und statistisch nicht signifikant. Da die hergeleitete Beziehung zwischen CMFs im UV und SW Bereich hauptsächlich vom Sonnenstand und nicht vom Standort abhängt, kann diese ebenfalls für die Modellierung von UV-Strahlung für Zeitperioden und an anderen Orten verwendet werden, wo Informationen über Totalozon, Albedo und SW vorhanden sind. Die Validierung dieses UV-Modells mit Beobachtungen an den vier SACRaM-Stationen führte zu sehr guten Übereinstimmungen mit RMS Fehlern zwischen 4.3 und 6.9 mw m 2 (9 12%) für eine hohe zeitliche Auflösung von 10 Minuten. Aggregierte Tagesdosen zeigten noch kleinere Abweichungen zu Beobachtungen (< 8%). UV-Strahlung wurde an den vier Stationen zurück bis 1981 rekonstruiert und auf ihre zeitliche Entwicklung analysiert. Der grösste Anstieg der UV-Strahlung wurde für Monate des ersten Halbjahrs verzeichnet, mit maximalen Zuwachsraten im März zwischen % pro Dekade. Über die gesamte analysierte Periode, ergab sich ein Anstieg des UV-Index für Mai und Juni zwischen 0.54 und Die Trends für die Monate der zweiten Jahreshälfte waren zumeist klein und statistisch nicht signifikant.
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