Diplomarbeit. zur Erlangung des Grades einer Diplom-Geoökologin. vorgelegt von. Kerstin Hockmann. Braunschweig, den 27. Juni 2008

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1 Effects of non-equilibrium and non-ideal transport and transformation processes on pesticide leaching in a structured clay soil at Brimstone Farm (UK): a sensitivity study Diplomarbeit zur Erlangung des Grades einer Diplom-Geoökologin vorgelegt von Kerstin Hockmann Braunschweig, den 27. Juni 2008 Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Durner Prof. Dr. Nick J. Jarvis Technische Universität Braunschweig Institut für Geoökologie Abteilung für Bodenkunde und Bodenphysik Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Department of Soil Sciences Division of Environmental Physics

2 Abstract Non-equilibrium water flow through macropores in the vadose zone may substantially increase the risk of groundwater and surface water contamination by agrochemicals. Pore-scale heterogeneity also exerts a major control on both sorption and biological transformations. In this study, the effects of non-ideal and non-equilibrium transport and transformation processes on the leaching of the pesticide isoproturon (IPU) in a structured clay soil at Brimstone Farm, UK, were examined. A short-term lysimeter experiment was carried out under atmospheric conditions and the dual-permeability model MACRO Version 5.1 was applied to the leaching data of the inert tracer bromide and the herbicide isoproturon. Model input parameters were obtained from a combination of laboratory measurements, literature values and parameters estimated in previous studies on Brimstone soil. The initial water content, the dispersivity and the diffusion path lengths in two horizons were estimated by inverse modelling of bromide leaching and water flow. Starting with these base scenarios, a detailed sensitivity study was performed in order to investigate the influence of variations in input parameters, model assumptions and boundary conditions, particularly in terms of matching the observed isoproturon leaching pattern. The results of this work support the hypothesis that physical protection of solute in the micropore domain is a crucial factor for solute transport in this soil. Three possible factors were brought forward to explain the observed rapid decline in IPU concentrations: (i) kinetic sorption, (ii) heterogeneities in degradation rates and (iii) the reduction of the solute exchange term. However, none of these factors alone could satisfactorily explain the observed IPU leaching pattern. This work also shows that the correct simulation of sorption processes in the macropores and an accurate representation of solute interaction at the soil surface play a decisive role in the successful prediction of IPU concentrations, particularly with regard to reproducing the high initial concentrations. In order to test the suitability of the first-order mass transfer concept as implemented in MACRO and to investigate the influence of intra-aggregate concentration gradients on leaching, a solute exchange model based on Fickian diffusion was developed with the software tool Powersim. A comparison of both approaches revealed that if the diffusion path length was recalibrated to account for the different boundary conditions, the approximate first-order concept gave an equally good fit to the observations as the more physically-based SFMD model. This work highlighted that for a reliable calibration of parameters and a quantification of factors affecting isoproturon transport in this soil, future research efforts need to focus on a lysimeter experiment on Brimstone soil with data in high temporal resolution. Highlighting the key factors for the simulation of solute transport in a heavy clay with MACRO, this thesis may be viewed as a basis for future pesticide transport studies on Brimstone soil.

3 Zusammenfassung Durch Makroporen initiierter präferentieller Fluss in der vadosen Zone kann das Risiko einer Grund- oder Oberflächenwasserkontamination durch in der Landwirtschaft ausgetragene Pflanzenschutzmittel stark erhöhen. In dieser Arbeit wurden die Effekte nicht-idealer Transport- und Umsetzungsprozesse unter Berücksichtigung chemischen und physikalischen Ungleichgewichts auf den Pestizidaustrag in einem strukturierten Tonboden vom Gelände der Brimstone Farm, Großbritannien, untersucht. Unter atmosphärischen Randbedingungen wurde ein Lysimeterexperiment durchgeführt, bei dem der Austrag des Herbizids Isoproturon (IPU) und des inerten Tracers Bromid über zwei Monate beobachtet wurde. Aus einer Kombination von Labormessungen, Literaturwerten und in vorherigen Studien am Untersuchungsboden gewonnenen Parameterschätzungen wurde ein Standardszenario in dem Dual-Permeabilitätsmodell MACRO, Version 5. 1, entwickelt, das durch die Kalibrierung des Anfangswassergehalts, der Dispersionslänge und der Diffusionslängen in zwei Horizonten gegen den Bromidaustrag ergänzt wurde. Anhand dieses Datensatzes wurde eine detaillierte Sensitivitätsanalyse in MACRO durchgeführt, bei der sowohl Input-Parameter variiert wurden als auch Randbedingungen und Modellannahmen. Ein besonderer Augenmerk lag dabei auf der Reproduzierbarkeit der gemessenen IPU-Konzentrationen. In dieser Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass der Stoffaustrag während des Lysimeterexperiments durch Diffusion in die Matrix stark limitiert war. Die Sensitivtätsanalysen verdeutlichten die Bedeutung einer kinetischen Sorption, räumlicher Variabilitäten in den Abbauraten und einer Reduktion des Austauschterms zwischen den beiden Fließregionen im Dual-Permeabilitätsansatz für eine erfolgreiche Modellvorhersage des IPU-Austrags. Jedoch konnte keiner der genannten Faktoren allein die drastische Abnahme der Austragskonzentrationen in zufriedenstellender Weise erklären. Diese Studie unterstrich die große Bedeutung einer korrekten Beschreibung von Sorptionsprozessen in der Makropore und von Austauschprozessen an der Bodenoberfläche für eine erfolgreiche Modellvorhersage mit MACRO. Der Stoffaustausch zwischen den Makroporen und der Matrix wird in MACRO über eine Kinetik erster Ordnung beschrieben. Da dieses Konzept Konzentrationsgradienten innerhalb der Aggregate nicht berücksichtigt, wurde ein Modell mit der Software Powersim entwickelt, das den Transfer auf der Basis des Fick schen Diffusionsgesetzes beschreibt. Ein Vergleich beider Modelle zeigte, dass der Austauschterm erster Ordnung ausreichend gute Modellvorhersagen liefert, wenn der Transferkoeffizient angepasst wird. Für eine verlässliche Parameteridentifikation und eine aussagekräftige Quantifizierung der in einem strukturierten Tonboden stattfindenden Prozesse wird die Durchführung eines Lysimeterexperiments in höherer zeitlicher Auflösung empfohlen. Diese Arbeit kann dabei als Basis für künftige Simulationen des reaktiven Stofftransports mit dem Modell MACRO dienen. vi

4 Contents List of Figures List of Tables Abbreviations and Symbols x xi xii 1 Introduction 1 2 Theory and model description Non-equilibrium flow in structured soils Types of macropores Physical characteristics of macropore flow Biological and chemical properties of macropores Description of the MACRO Model Soil water flow in the MACRO model Solute transport and transformation in the MACRO model Heat transport Numerical solution Parameter estimation Materials and methods Lysimeter experiment and laboratory data Field site and soil properties Lysimeter study Pesticide degradation in disturbed soil Model parameterisation and calibration Simulation settings for the simulations with MACRO Inverse parameter estimation with SUFI Sensitivity analyses Base scenarios of bromide and IPU transport Sensitivity to the average rainfall intensity Mass exchange at the soil surface Sensitivity of IPU leaching to the fraction of sorption sites in the macropores Non-equilibrium sorption Influence of intra-aggregate concentration gradients Spatial variability in the degradation rates of IPU vii

5 3.3.8 Adjustment of the diffusion coefficient and the diffusion path lengths Results and discussion Results of the lysimeter experiment Parameter adjustments and model calibration Adjustments of soil hydraulic parameters Adjustments of degradation parameters Inverse parameter estimation and simulation of the basecase scenarios Sensitivity analyses Model sensitivity to the average rainfall intensity Variations in the upper boundary condition Model sensitivity to the fraction of sorption sites Chemical non-equilibrium Intra-aggregate concentration gradients Variability and heterogeneity in degradation rates Adjustment of the diffusion coefficient and the diffusion path length Formation of non-extractable residues and further aspects reducing IPU transport Uncertainties in simulations and parameters Conclusions and outlook 79 Bibliography 83 A Experimental results 93 B Supplementary equations 97 B.1 Supplementary equations to the FOMT model B.2 Supplementary equations to the SFMD model C Calibration procedures 99 D Simulations 105 viii

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