Research Collection. Structure/function analysis of viral vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-E) and its specific receptor (VEGFR-2)

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1 Research Collection Doctoral Thesis Structure/function analysis of viral vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-E) and its specific receptor (VEGFR-2) Author(s): Pieren, Michel Publication Date: 2006 Permanent Link: Rights / License: In Copyright - Non-Commercial Use Permitted This page was generated automatically upon download from the ETH Zurich Research Collection. For more information please consult the Terms of use. ETH Library

2 Doctoral Thesis ETH Nr Structure/function analysis of viral vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-E) and its specific receptor (VEGFR-2) A dissertation submitted to the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich for the degree of Doctor of Natural Sciences presented by Michel Pieren Dipl. Natw. ETH born citizen of Adelboden (BE), Switzerland Accepted on the recommendation of Prof. Dr. F. K. Winkler, examiner Prof. Dr. R. Glockshuber, co-examiner Prof. Dr. K. Ballmer-Hofer, co-examiner Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen, 2006

3 Summary 12 Summary Vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) constitute a diverse family of polypeptides that regulate blood and lymphatic vessel development and function, both under physiological conditions and in disease. Currently, the VEGF family consists of VEGF-A, -B, -C, -D, and PlGF (placenta growth factor), a series of viral VEGFs (VEGF-E) and snake venom VEGFs, including Vammin and VR-1. Several of these factors, notably VEGF-A, exist as different isoforms which appear to have unique biological functions. VEGFs bind to three types of tyrosine kinase receptors, VEGF receptor 1, 2 and 3 (VEGFR-1, -2, -3) that are predominantly expressed on endothelial and some hematopoietic cells. Ligand binding to the extracellular domain initiates structural changes that lead to receptor dimerization followed by activation of the intracellular kinase domain generating auto- and heterophosphorylation. Phosphorylated tyrosine residues act as docking sites for a variety of signaling molecules. In addition, interactions of VEGFR with costimulatory molecules such as neuropilin or heparan sulfate proteoglycans further expand the repertoire of signaling pathways activated by VEGFs. My thesis aims to understand the structure-function relationship of VEGFR-2, the major signal transducer in angiogenesis. In particular, I wanted to address questions concerning the structure of VEGF-E, a VEGFR-2 specific ligand, and its implications for VEGFR specificity. Secondly, my goal was to visualize the dimerization of VEGFR-2 in live cells upon stimulation with VEGFs. The crystal structure of VEGF-E NZ-2 was solved by single wavelength anomalous dispersion (SAD) from a native crystal based on the anomalous signal from sulfur. The comparison of our crystal structure with the known structures of VEGF-A, PlGF, Vammin and VR-1 reveals conformational differences in loops 1 and 3 which are important for receptor specificity. The most striking difference is in loop 3 which contains a highly flexible motif that differs from loop 3 in all other structural homologs. Based on the structure we created chimeric proteins by exchanging selected segments in loop 1 and loop 3 with the corresponding sequences from PlGF, a VEGFR-1 specific ligand. Our data show that it is possible to engineer chimeric VEGF molecules with altered receptor specificity. To further understand the molecular details underlying VEGFR-2 activation, we expressed receptor fragments comprising the ligand-binding domains of VEGFR-2 in mammalian cells.

4 Summary 13 The purified proteins were subjected to complex formation with VEGF-A or VEGF-E. We were able to isolate stable complexes with two VEGF-A isoforms in milligram quantities. So far, initial crystallization screens did not provide any crystals for diffraction experiments. I next generated a series of VEGFR-2 chimeras carrying cyan fluorescent protein (CFP) or yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) tags for live cell imaging. Fluorescent VEGFR-2 variants were properly transported to the plasma membrane of transiently transfected mammalian cells. In cells coexpressing CFP and YFP receptor fusion proteins, the fluorescent tags can also be used as proximity sensor. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a non invasive method to visualize molecular interactions and is depended on the distance between two fluorophores. Thus, we applied this technique to investigate receptor dimerization in live cells but could not visualize changes in FRET intensities upon VEGF stimulation. Finally, the characterization of a VEGF-A splice variant with attenuated signal output on VEGFR-2 is described. This new splice variant, VEGF-A 165 b, was recently identified and showed anti-angiogenic properties counteracting VEGF-A 165 in vitro and in vivo. The sequences are identical except for the last six amino acids that are encoded by exon 8 in VEGF-A 165 and replaced by a sequence encoded by exon 9 in VEGF-A 165 b. The difference of VEGF-A 165 b in signaling by VEGFR-2 was attributed to altered interactions with the costimulatory molecules neuropilin-1 and heparin which are mediated by the carboxyterminal tail of the VEGF-A.

5 Zusammenfassung 14 Zusammenfassung Vaskuläre endotheliale Wachstumsfaktoren (VEGFs) definieren eine Familie von Polypeptiden, die die Entwicklung von Blut- und Lymphgefässen regulieren, dies sowohl unter physiologischen Bedingungen wie auch in Krankheiten. Die VEGF Familie besteht zur Zeit aus VEGF-A, -B, -C, -D und PlGF (Plazenta Wachstumsfaktor), einer Reihe von viralen VEGFs (VEGF-E) und aus Schlangengiften wie etwa Vammin und VR-1. Viele dieser Wachstumsfaktoren, vornehmlich VEGF-A, existieren in verschiedenen Isoformen, die einzigartige biologische Funktionen aufweisen. VEGFs binden an drei Rezeptor-Tyrosin- Kinasen, VEGF-Rezeptor 1, 2, und 3 (VEGFR-1, -2, -3), die vorwiegend in Endothelzellen und hämatopoetischen Zellen exprimiert werden. Die Bindung eines Liganden an die extrazellulären Domänen des Rezeptores bewirkt strukturelle Veränderungen, die zur Dimerisierung der Rezeptoren und Aktivierung der intrazellulären Kinase führen, was wiederum zu Auto- und Heterophosphorylierungen führt. Die phosphorylierten Tyrosine wirken als Andockstellen für eine Vielzahl von Signalmolekülen. Zusätzlich interagieren VEGF Rezeptoren mit co-stimulierenden Molekülen wie etwa Neuropilin oder Proteoglycane, die das Repertoire an VEGF-aktivierten Signalwegen erhöhen. Meine Doktorarbeit hat zum Ziel, die Struktur-Funktions-Beziehung von VEGFR-2, dem hauptsächlichen Signalvermittler in der Angiogenese, zu verstehen. Insbesondere wollte ich Fragen über die Struktur von VEGF-E, einem VEGFR-2 spezifischen Liganden, und deren Implikationen für die Rezeptorspezifität nachgehen. Weiterhin war es mein Ziel, die VEGF induzierte Dimerisierung von VEGFR-2 in lebenden Zellen sichtbar zu machen. Die Kristallstruktur von VEGF-E NZ2 wurde mittels single-wavelength anomalous dispersion (SAD) gelöst basierend auf dem anomalen Signal von Schwefel. Der Vergleich unserer Struktur mit denen von VEGF-A, PlGF, Vammin und VR-1 zeigt konformationelle Unterschiede in Loop 1 und 3 auf, die wichtig für die Rezeptorspezifität sind. Der wichtigste Unterschied ist in Loop 3 zu erkennen, der ein sehr flexibles Motif enthält, das sich von dem in den anderen Struktur-Homologen unterscheidet. Basierend auf unserer Struktur haben wir chimäre Proteine entworfen und die Segmente in Loop 1 und 3 mit den korrespondierenden Sequenzen von PlGF, einem VEGFR-1 spezifischen Liganden, ersetzt. Unsere Daten zeigen,

6 Zusammenfassung 15 dass es möglich ist, chimäre VEGF Moleküle mit veränderter Rezeptor-Spezifität zu konstruieren. Um die molekularen Details der Aktivierung von VEGFR-2 besser zu verstehen, haben wir Rezeptorfragmente bestehend aus den Ligand-bindenden Domänen von VEGFR-2 in Säugerzellen exprimiert. Die gereinigten Proteine wurden der Komplexbildung mit VEGF-A oder VEGF-E unterworfen. Wir konnten stabile Komplexe mit zwei Isoformen von VEGF-A in Milligramm Mengen isolieren. Erste Kristallisations-Ansätze haben noch keine Kristalle hervorgebracht, die brauchbar zur Strukturbestimmung sind. Als nächstes habe ich eine Serie von VEGFR-2 Chimären hergestellt, die einen cyan fluoreszierenden Protein-Teil (CFP) oder einen gelb fluoreszierenden Protein-Teil (YFP) enthalten für die Mikroskopie mit lebenden Zellen. In transient transfizierten Säugerzellen wurden die fluoreszierenden VEGFR-2 Varianten korrekt an die Plasmamembran transportiert. In Zellen, die sowohl CFP als auch YFP Rezeptor-Fusions-Proteine exprimieren, können die fluoreszierenden Teile auch als Abstands-Sensoren verwendet werden. Fluorescence resonance ernergy transfer (FRET) ist eine nicht-invasive Methode, um molekulare Interaktionen zu visualisieren und ist von der Distanz zweier Fluorophore abhängig. Wir haben diese Technik benutzt, um die Rezeptor-Dimerisierung in lebenden Zellen zu verfolgen, konnten aber keine Änderungen in den FRET Intensitäten nach VEGF Stimulation beobachten. Schlussendlich beschreibe ich noch die Charakterisierung einer VEGF-A Splice-Variante mit vermindertem Signal-Output auf VEGFR-2. Diese neue Variante, VEGF-A 165 b, wurde kürzlich identifiziert und zeigte anti-angiogenes Verhalten in vitro und in vivo und wirkt VEGF-A 165 entgegen. Die Sequenzen der beiden Proteine sind weitgehend identisch bis auf die letzten sechs Aminosäuren, die durch Exon 8 kodiert werden in VEGF-A 165 aber durch Exon 9 in VEGF-A 165 b ersetzt sind. Der Unterschied von VEGF-A 165 b in der Signalvermittlung durch VEGFR-2 wurde geänderten Interaktionen mit den costimulierenden Molekülen Neuropilin-1 und Heparin zugeschrieben. Diese werden durch den carboxyterminalen Teil von VEGF-A vermittelt.

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