Graf, Lukas The rise of work-based academic education in Austria, Germany and Switzerland

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1 Graf, Lukas The rise of work-based academic education in Austria, Germany and Switzerland Journal of Vocational Education & Training 68 (2016) 1, S Empfohlene Zitierung/ Suggested Citation: Graf, Lukas: The rise of work-based academic education in Austria, Germany and Switzerland - In: Journal of Vocational Education & Training 68 (2016) 1, S URN: urn:nbn:de:0111-pedocs Nutzungsbedingungen Dieses Dokument steht unter folgender Creative Commons-Lizenz: - Sie dürfen das Werk bzw. den Inhalt unter folgenden Bedingungen vervielfältigen, verbreiten und öffentlich zugänglich machen: Sie müssen den Namen des Autors/Rechteinhabers in der von ihm festgelegten Weise nennen. Dieses Werk bzw. dieser Inhalt darf nicht für kommerzielle Zwecke verwendet werden und es darf nicht bearbeitet, abgewandelt oder in anderer Weise verändert werden. Mit der Verwendung dieses Dokuments erkennen Sie die Nutzungsbedingungen an. Terms of use This document is published under following Creative Commons-License: - You may copy, distribute and transmit, adapt or exhibit the work in the public as long as you attribute the work in the manner specified by the author or licensor. You are not allowed to make commercial use of the work or its contents. You are not allowed to alter, transform, or change this work in any other way. By using this particular document, you accept the above-stated conditions of use. Kontakt / Contact: pedocs Deutsches Institut für Internationale Pädagogische Forschung (DIPF) Informationszentrum (IZ) Bildung pedocs@dipf.de Internet:

2 JournalofVocationalEducation&Training ISSN: (Print) (Online)Journalhomepage:htp:/ Theriseofwork-basedacademiceducationin Austria,GermanyandSwitzerland LukasGraf Tocitethisarticle: LukasGraf(2016)Theriseofwork-basedacademiceducationinAustria, GermanyandSwitzerland,JournalofVocationalEducation&Training,68:1,1-16,DOI: / Tolinktothisarticle: htp:/dx.doi.org/ / TheAuthor(s).PublishedbyTaylor& Francis Publishedonline:11Dec2015. Submityourarticletothisjournal Articleviews:338 Viewrelatedarticles ViewCrossmarkdata FulTerms&Conditionsofaccessandusecanbefoundat htp:/ Downloadby:[UniversitaetStGalen] Date: 11February2016,At:01:17

3 JOURNALOFVOCATIONALEDUCATION&TRAINING,2016 VOL.68,NO.1,1 16 htp:/dx.doi.org/ / Theriseofwork-basedacademiceducationinAustria, GermanyandSwitzerland LukasGraf DepartmentofPoliticalScience,UniversityofSt.Galen,St.Galen,Switzerland Introduction Ininternationalcomparison,thetrainingsystemsofAustria,GermanyandSwitzerlandcanbe consideredasstructuralysimilar(e.g.pilz2012).althreecountriesarecoordinatedmarket economiesandrenownedfortheirextensivedualapprenticeshiptrainingsystemsatupper secondarylevel(halandsoskice2001;rothe2001).moreover,thethreecountriesarepart ofthecolectiveskilsystemcluster.thatis,initialvocationaltrainingiscolectivelyorganisedthroughthecooperationoffrms,thestateaswelasintermediaryasociationssuch asemployers asociationsandtradeunions(busemeyerandtrampusch2012).however, Austria,GermanyandSwitzerlandarealsocharacterisedbyaninstitutionaldividebetween thevocationaleducationandtrainingsystem(vet)andtheacademicorhighereducation system(he).thisdivisionbetweenvetandhe,caledthe educationalschism (Baethge2006), hasbecomeincreasinglycontestedduetoacomplexsetofinterelatedsocioeconomic factorsresultinginanincreasingdemandforhigherskils.thesechalengesincludethe structuraldevelopmenttowardstheserviceandknowledgeeconomy,relatedchangesin ABSTRACT Austria,GermanyandSwitzerlandarerenownedfortheirextensive systemsofcolectivevocationalskilformation, which,however, havedevelopedlargelyinseparationfromhighereducation.this dividehasbecomeincreasinglycontestedasaresultofavarietyof socioeconomicfactorsthathaveledtoanincreasingdemandfor higherlevelskils.dothethreecountriesdealwiththesechalenges insimilarways?thecomparativeanalysisisbasedonprocestracing fromthe1960sto2013andbuildsonhistoricalinstitutionalismas welasseveraldozenexpertinterviewswithkeystakeholders.akey fndingisthatalthreecountrieshavedevelopedhybridformsof work-basedacademiceducationthatcombineelementsofvocational trainingandhighereducation.however,inaustriaandswitzerland, thesehybridshavebeenintegratedintothetraditional modelof colectivegovernance,whereasthegermancasesignifesadeparture fromthismodel. 2015TheAuthor(s).PublishedbyTaylor&Francis. ThisisanOpenAcesarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAtribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivativesLicense (htp:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/),whichpermitsnon-commercialre-use,distribution,andreproductioninanymedium, providedtheoriginalworkisproperlycited,andisnotaltered,transformed,orbuiltuponinanyway. KEYWORDS Vocationaleducationand training;highereducation; gradualinstitutionalchange; layering;comparativevet; labourmarkets ARTICLEHISTORY Received27February2015 Acepted4October2015 CONTACTLukasGraf

4 2 L.GRAF theproductionmodelandworkplacesaswelasrisingeducationalaspirationsofindividuals(e.g.hippach-schneideretal.2013;ebner,graf,andnikolai2013).inaddition,recent Europeanreforms,liketheBolognaandtheCopenhagenproceses,pushforgreatermobility betweenvetandhe,amongotherthings,toreducesocialinequalitieslinkedtoeducational opportunities(powelandsolga2010;bernhard,graf,andpowel2013). DothesimilarsystemsofAustria,GermanyandSwitzerlanddealwiththesechalengesin similarways?thepresentedcomparativeinstitutionalanalysisisbasedonprocestracing inalthreecountriesfromthe1960sto2013,buildsonhistoricalinstitutionalismandisprimarilybasedonseveraldozenexpertinterviewswithkeystakeholdersaswelasdocument analysis.thestudyfndsthatinaustria,germanyandswitzerlandhybridorganisationalforms havearisenthatcombinesomeofthecoreinstitutionalelementsfromboththevetfeld andthehefeldsuchasregulationsrelatedtocertifcatesandrulesofaccesion,normative principleswithregardtocuricularstandardsand, moregeneraly,educationalconcepts andideals.thesehybridorganisationalformshavebeengradualyexpandinginaniche betweentheestablishedfeldsofvetandhe.thus,amajorwayinwhichaustria,germany andswitzerlandhavebeenaddresingtheabove-mentionedchalengestotherigidinstitutionaldividebetweenvetandheisthroughhybridwork-basedacademicprogrammes thatrepresentincrementalchangeintheformoflayeringatthenexusofvetandhe. However,duetospecifcfactorsintherespectivenationalcontexts,layeringhasled todiferentnationalvariantsofhybridorganisationalforms,namely(1)thevetcoleges (BerufsbildendeHöhereSchulen)inAustria,the(2)dualstudyprogrammes(dualeStudiengänge) ingermanyand(3)thehybridconfgurationofinitialvocationaleducationandtraining(ivet) anduniversitiesofappliedsciences(uas)inswitzerland(ivet-uasconfguration). EachofthesethreehybridorganisationalformsstraddlestheboundarybetweenVET andhe,butalsotheconventionaldividebetweenuppersecondaryandpost-secondary education.inaustria,thevetcolegespickupyoungpeopleatanearlystageandleadtoa doublequalifcationofahighereducationentrancecertifcateandanofcialvetcertifcate thatisrecognisedasimpartingstudentswithcompetencesreachingbeyondthesecondary level.ingermany,thedualstudyprogrammescombinein-frmtrainingwithhestudies; theseprogrammesleadtoabachelor sdegreeandinmanycasesalsotoanofcialupper secondaryvetcertifcate.theswisivet-uasconfgurationincreasestheatractivenes ofdualapprenticeshiptrainingasitprovidesapprenticeswithaninstitutionalisedpathto highereducationstudiesatbachelorlevel. WhileotherstudieshaveanalysedhybriddoublequalifcationsthatcombineVETatthe uppersecondarylevelwithaccestohe(daveyandfuler2013,81 82;Deißingeretal. 2013),myfocusisonhybridorganisationalformsthatspantheboundarybetweenupper secondaryvetandpost-secondaryeducationhe.ianalysethedevelopmentofthesehybrid organisationalformstoasestheirroleintheevolutionofcolectiveskilformationinaustria, GermanyandSwitzerland.AkeyfndingofthiscomparisonisthatAustriaandSwitzerland featurea moreconsensualapproachtoreform,whichis moreefectiveincompensating forthedisadvantagesweakersocioeconomicgroupsface.incontrast,ingermanytheprocesofgradualinstitutionalchangebreakswiththetraditionofcolectivelyorganisedskil formation. Thefolowingsectionpresentsthehistorical comparativeresearchdesign.afterthat,i describethethreehybridorganisationalformsaswelastheirhistoricalevolution.f inaly,i comparethethreecasesanddiscusthekeyfndings.

5 JOURNAL OFVOCATIONAL EDUCATION &TRAINING 3 Historical comparativeapproach,methodsanddata Inordertoexploretheriseofwork-basedacademiceducation,thispaperdrawsinspiration fromthehistorical institutionalperspectiveandthetheoryofgradualinstitutionalchange (StreeckandThelen2005).ThefeldsofVETandHEareusualyseenasservingdiferent purposesintherespectivenationalpoliticaleconomies especialyinthosecountrieswith extensivedualvetsystems.eachfeldisshapedbydiferentconstelationsofinterestgroups andstronglylegitimisedwithinacomplexstratifcationsystem.however,atthesametime, theinstitutionaldividebetweenvetandheisincreasinglychalengedbysocioeconomic developmentssuchastheshifttotheserviceandknowledgeeconomyandrisingeducationalaspirationbyindividuals.thus,therearebothstrongforcesstabilisingtheinstitutional dividebetweenvetandheaswelasanincreasingpresureforinstitutionalchange.in suchasituation,historicalinstitutionalism(streeckandthelen,2005)suggeststhatchange ismostlikelytooccurnotthrough,forexample,outrightdisplacementbutratherthrough indirectactivities andgradualinstitutionalchangesatthefringeofagiveninstitutional order.thisimpliesthatinstitutionsarenotreplacedbywholynewones,butratheramended, revisedornewrulesadded.inthiscontext,changeisasociatedwithsmalamendments thatcansetintomotiondynamicsthatmayeventualycrowdoutorsupplanttheoldlogic ofagiveninstitutionalconfguration.inotherwords,incrementalchangesovertimecan gradualyadduptotransformativechange(thelen2004,217).basedonthesearguments fromhistoricalinstitutionalism andgiventhestronginstitutionalisationoftheinstitutional dividebetweenvetandheinaustria,germanyandswitzerland Iexpectthatinstitutional changesatthenexusofvetandheinthesethreecountriesrepresentgradualratherthan radicalmodesofchange. StreeckandThelen(2005)furtherdistinguishbetweenfourkeymodesofgradualinstitutionalchange,namely(I)displacement,(I)conversion,(I)driftand(IV)layering:(I)When existinginstitutionalrulesareremovedandnewonesintroduced,thisrepresentsdisplacement.(i)whenrulesformalystaythesamebutareinterpretedandimplementedinnew ways,thisredeploymentisreferedtoasconversion.(i)driftreferstoshiftsoccuringin theexternalconditionsofarule,implyingthatthisruleformalyremainsinplacebutthat itsimpactchanges(seealsohacker2005).(iv)wheninstitutionalrulesarenotreplacedby wholynewones,butrathernewrulesaddedthatmayalterthemeaningoftheolderrules overtime,thisiscaledlayering(seealsoschickler2001). Thefolowingempiricalanalysiswilexplore,frstly,whetheranyoftherecentdevelopmentsinAustria,GermanyandSwitzerlandresembleoneormoreofthesemodesofgradual institutionalchangeand,ifso,secondly,whetherthesechangescomplywiththetraditional developmentalpathoftheseeducationalsystems.thecasestudiescoverthegenesisand expansionofthehybridorganisationalformsfromroughlythe1960supto2013.the1960s areselectedasastartingpointasatimewhenmasiveeducationalexpansionexertedsignifcantpresureoneducationalsystems especialyatthepost-secondarylevel. Withregardtothecomparativemethod,thearticleappliesthemethodofparaleldemonstrationoftheory(SkocpolandSomers1980).Thatis,Austria,GermanyandSwitzerlandare juxtaposedtoexaminewhetherthetheoryofgradualinstitutionalchangecanbeconvinc- inglyappliedand,ifso,toseehowthistheoryoperatesontheground.toaccountforinstitu- tionalchanges,irelyonsystematicprocesanalysis,whichhasspecialvaluefordeveloping theory-orientedexplanationsinthecontextofsmal-ncasestudies.thepaperpractises

6 4 L.GRAF procestracingasamethodoftracingchangeinanexplorativeway.thatis,procestracing isreferedtoastheanalysisofsequencesofeventstoexplorerelevantlinkingmechanisms andinterveningprocesesinspecifccases(seemahoney2004:88 89).Foreachcountry case,ioferanarativeaccountofcrucialsequentialevents. Whenapplyingthis method, idealy,theresearcherwilfndthatthemostsignifcanthistoricalstepstowardstheoutcome canbeexplainedbyreferencetoatheory(seegeorgeandbennet2005,30) inthiscase, thisisthetheoryofgradualinstitutionalchange. Morespecifcaly,eachcasestudywilprovideahistoricalaccountofinstitutionalchanges andnewinstitutionalarangementsatthenexusofvetandhe.todetectanddefneinstitutionalchange,thesearangementswilthenbeasesedintheirrelationtothetraditional institutionalconfgurationsofthefeldsofvetandhe. Morespecifcaly,Iwilcompare institutionalchangealongthreeinstitutionaldimensions(d)thatconstitutefundamental featuresofeducationalsystems: Learningproceses(D1)referingto,forexample,curicularstandards:here,theempirical analysisfocusesespecialyonthecuricularcombinationoflearningexperiencesinthe clasroomandintheworkplaceortrainingcompany. Governancestructures(D2)referingto,forinstance,theinfuenceofstateagenciesand socialpartners:here,itcanbedistinguishedbetweenregulation,fnancing,administration,andmonitoring ascoreelementsofeducationalgovernance(e.g.streecketal. 1987).Whiletheempiricalanalysistouchesuponaloftheseelements,itsmainfocus isonregulation,i.e.thewayinwhicheducationalgoals,contentsandstandardsare decided. Locationwithintheeducationalsystem(D3)referingtothelocusoftheeducational institutionanditsrelationtootherpartsoftheeducationalsystem. Thesethreedimensionsalsoservetooperationalisehybridorganisationalforms.Thus,if anorganisationalformintegrateslearningproceses(d1)andgovernancestructures(d2) fromthetraditionalfeldsofvetandhe,andalsostraddlestheboundarybetweenvetand HEaswelasbetweenuppersecondaryandpost-secondaryformsoflearning(D3),thenit isconsideredtobeahybrid. Thekeydatasourceiscomposedofsemi-standardisedexpertinterviewswitharepresentativesampleof44relevantVETandHEstakeholdersinAustria,GermanyandSwitzerland. Theexpertinterviewswerecariedoutbetween2010and2013withrepresentativesofstate agencies,employers,employees,intermediaryorganisations,educationalorganisationsand specialisednationalresearchinstitutesonvetandheinaustria(at:11interviews),germany (DE:15interviews)andSwitzerland(CH:18interviews).Theinterviewslastedforatleast 45minandinsomecasesupto2hours.Inadditiontotheexpertinterviewsandavailable secondarysources,ianalysedofcialdocumentsbykeynationalstakeholders. Inthefolowing,IdescribethehybridorganisationalformsinAustria,Germanyand Switzerlandinmoredetailandsketchtheirhistoricalevolution. Austria:VETcoleges TheVETsystemofAustriadisplaysa dualisticstructure asitbuildsonbothdualapprenticeshiptrainingandful-timevocationalschools(lasnigg2011).intheintragroupcomparison ofthethreecountriesanalysedinthispaper,austriahasthestrongesttraditionofful-time

7 JOURNAL OFVOCATIONAL EDUCATION &TRAINING 5 vocationalschooling.thehistoricaldevelopmentoftheprestigiousvetcoleges,whichcombine higherprofesionaleducationwithsophisticatedgeneraleducation (Af,Paschinger, andrechberger2013,15),buildsonthistradition. TheVETcolegesbecameinstitutionalisedintheirpresentforminthe1960sbuthave rootsinpreviouscenturies.thecreationofastrongful-timevocationalschoolingsector goesbacktotheinfuenceoffrencheducationalideals(basedonful-timeschool-basedvet) importedbydumreicherinthenineteenthcenturyandeveneducationalreformpolicies datingbacktomariatheresia sreignintheeighteenthcentury(e.g.schermaier1999,133; InterviewAT1).Theseinfuencesledtoastrongschool-basedVETsectorthatincombination withthealsosignifcantdualapprenticeshiptrainingsectorprovidedthegroundforthe creationofthevetcoleges.themasiveexpansionofvetcolegesfromthe1970sonwards wassupportedbyyouth sstrongdemandforvetcolegequalifcationsandfnancedbya SocialDemocratic(SPÖ)-ledgovernment(Graf,Lasnigg,andPowel2012). TheVETcuriculumtakesoneyearlongerthanthatofthegeneralacademicsecondary school.infveyears,itleadstothedoublequalifcationofavetdiplomaandanacademic baccalaureate:theacademicbaccalaureateofersgeneralaccestohighereducation,while thevetdiplomaprovidestherighttoexercisehigherleveloccupations(berechtigungzur AusübunggehobenerBerufe)(SchOG2012, 65). 1 Around26%ofalstudentsinthetenth gradeareenroledinavetcolege(tritscher-archanandnowak2011).therearesixmajor VETcolegetypescoveringthefeldsofengineering,artsandcrafts;businesadministration;managementandserviceindustries;tourism;fashionanddesignaswelasagriculture andforestry.afterthreeyearsofrelevantprofesionalexperience,graduatesfrom most VETColegesofEngineering,ArtsandCraftsandVETColegesofAgricultureandForestry canapplyfortheofcialtitle Engineer (Standesbezeichnung Ingenieur )attheresponsible ministry.whiletheseengineeringtitlesarenotofcialacademicdegrees,theynevertheles enjoyaveryhighreputationintheaustrianlabourmarket(interviewsat5,at11).infact, manygraduatesfromthevetcolegeschoosetonotacceshighereducationstudiesbut directlyenterthelabourmarket.whenvetcolegegraduatesdodecidetoacceshigher education,therecognitionoftheirrelevantpriorlearninghastobegranted. TheVETcolegesenjoyanexcelentreputationbothwithyoungpeopleandAustrian employers.theyarerecognisedasenablingstudentstoacquireskilsbeyondtheupper secondarylevel.forexample,injobadvertisementsthereisfrequentlynodiferencemade betweengraduatesfromthevetcolegesandbachelorgraduatesfromuniversitiesof appliedsciences(seelasnigg2013,130).thatis,employersoftenopenthesamejobpositionforbothvetcolegegraduatesanduniversityofappliedsciencesgraduates(interviews AT2,AT8).OnereasonwhysomeemployersprefergraduatesfromVETcolegestoholdersof abachelor sdegreeisthegreaterproportionofpracticaltrainingthatthevetcolegesofer, whichisinlinewiththeskilsdemandedbysmal-andmedium-sizedfrmsthatdominate theaustrianeconomy(seeculpepper2007). TheVETcolegessystematicalylinkcuricularcontentsfromvocationaltrainingandacademiceducation,forexample,inthetrainingcompaniesthatareanintegrallearningsiteof thevetcolegesofbusinesadministration.thevetcolegesprovideanatractiveeducationalpathway,especialyforchildrenfromfamiliesotherwiseremotefromacademia,mainly becausetheyoferadoublequalifcationthatgrantsaccesbothtothelabourmarketand tohighereducation(interviewsat1,at8).thedecisiontostudyatavetcolege,typicaly

8 6 L.GRAF madeattheageof14,keepsopendiferenteducationalandcareerpathways,reducingthe riskofacademicdropout. ThegovernanceresponsibilityfortheVETcolegeslieswiththeresponsible ministry foreducation butwithinvolvementofemployerandemployeeasociationswithinthe frameworkofsocialpartnership.thevetcolegesareapartofthesystemofvetgovernance giventhattheyofervetdiplomasasapartoftheabove-mentioneddoublequalifcation: theyaresubjecttothevocationaltrainingactinasfarastheaccestoformalyregulated vocationsortheclasifcationinthewagescaleareconcerned.moregeneraly,inaustria thesocialpartnershaveveryclosetiestothepoliticalpartiesand ministriesandcanuse theseconnectionstoinfuencepolicy-makinginthefeldofschool-basedvet.theministriesandpoliticalpartieseitherformalyorinformalyintegratethesocialpartnerswithin theprocesofpoliticalopinionformation.withregardtoful-timevetschooling,thesocial partnershavetherighttosubmitasesmentsontopicssuchasreformsofschoollawsand curicula.inaddition,theyprovidestudents,schoolsandfrmswithvocationalinformation andguidanceandtheyalsosupportfosteringlinksbetweentheful-timevocationalschools andfrms(e.g.archanandmayr2006,22). Insum,theVETcolegesrepresentahybridorganisationalformbecause,frstly,theycombinelearningprocesesfrombothVETandHE(D1).Thisrefers,forexample,totheVETcolege doublequalifcationaswelas(insomecases)theposibilityofbeingawardedanengineeringtitle.secondly,thevetcolegesectorisnotsolelysubjecttotraditionalacademicschool governance, butintegratesaspectsofgovernancetypicalforthedualvetsector(d2).thirdly, intermsoftheirlocationintheeducationsystem,thevetcolegesstraddletheboundary betweenvetandheaswelasbetweenuppersecondaryandpost-secondaryformsof learning(d3).thelateraspectis,forinstance,ilustratedbytheirstrongrecognitioninthe domesticlabourmarket,butalsoattheeuropeanlevel(eu2005).however,thevetcoleges donotreplacethetraditionalinstitutionallogicsandformsofeducationinthefeldsofvet andhe,butratherrepresentanadditiontothesetwofeldswhileatthesametimedrawing onbothofthem.thistypeofchangeresemblesmostcloselythechangemodeoflayering, alowingvetcolegestobecomefrmlyestablishedandevenexpandasahybridlocated betweenthesystemsofdualapprenticeshiptrainingandacademicsecondaryschooling. Germany:dualstudyprogrammes Thedualstudyprogrammecanbeseenastranspositionofthedualapprenticeshiptraining principletothehighereducationsystem(deißinger2000).askahlert(2006)notes,thefrst educationalorganisationsoferingdualstudyprogrammes,theso-caledvocationalacademies,werenotmentionedinanygeneraleducationpolicyplan(alsointerviewde3,de8). Theemergenceofthedualstudyprogrammesfromthelate1960sonwardswaslargelya subversiveresponsebylargeindustrialfrmstotheperceivedacademicdriftrelatedtothe politicalyplannedupgradingofformervocationalandengineeringschoolsintouniversities ofappliedsciences.thatis,infuentiallargefrmsinbaden-wuertemberglaunchedthem tosecuretheirholdonhigh-endvocationaleducationandtraining,whichtheyfearedthey wouldloseinthefaceofthegreateracademicautonomyofthenewuniversitiesofapplied sciences(kahlert2006 ).Thefrstdualstudyprogrammeswerecreatedfromthebotom-up bylocalstakeholderswhofoundanicheinthegreyzonebetweenthefeldsofheandvet. Thesestakeholdersneithersoughttoentirelydisplacethenewlyestablisheduniversities

9 JOURNAL OFVOCATIONAL EDUCATION &TRAINING 7 ofappliedsciencesnorthetraditionaldualapprenticeshiptraining,buttoestablishanew organisationalformatthefringesofthesetwoestablishedones. DualstudyprogrammesaregainingincreasingatentionwithinthesocialscienceliteratureonvocationaltraininginGermany(e.g.Solgaetal.2014;Thelen2014).Esentialy,they combinetwodistinctlearningenvironments,namelyheinstitutionsandtheworkplace.in someofthedualstudyprogrammes,avocationalschoolisalsointegrated(waldhausenand Werner2005).Indualstudyprogrammes,studentsandfrmsareboundbyacontract.The programmesusualyleadtoabachelor sdegreeinaboutthreetofouryears(dualstudies atmaster slevelarestilveryrare)andconnecttwodidacticalprinciples,namelyscientifc groundingandpracticaltraining.forexample,theteachingstafiscomposedoflecturers, trainersfromindustryandsometimesvocationalschoolteachers.dualstudyprogrammes combineinstitutionalandorganisationalelementsfromthefeldsofvetandhewithregard totherespectivecuricula,teachingstaforfundingstructures.theoriginaltypeofdual studyprogrammes,theausbildungsintegrierendetype( dualstudyprogrammesintegrating aninitialvetcertifcate ),leadstoanofcialvocationalcertifcatefromthefeldofvocational training(uppersecondarylevel)aswelasabachelor sdegreefromthehighereducation sector(post-secondarylevel).theausbildungsintegrierendetypeistheonlyonewithdirect linkagestothetraditionalsystemofcolectivevetgovernanceasfarasthevetcertifcate isconcerned.alothertypes only leadtoabachelor sdegree,notadoublequalifcation. Dualstudyprogrammesareexpandingrapidlyandatractincreasingatentionfromal majorstakeholders(interviewsde1 8).InApril2013,the FederalInstituteforVocational EducationandTrainingcounted1461dualstudyprogrammesandmorethan64,358study places(bibb2014).comparedtoapril2008,thissignifesagrowthinregisteredstudyplaces of46%(bibb2008,2014).dualstudyprogrammesareoferedbyuniversitiesofapplied sciences(59%),thebaden-wuertembergcooperativestateuniversity(20%),vocational academies(15%)anduniversities(6%)(bibb2014,28).intotal,around27,900cooperative arangementsexistbetweenfrmsanddiferenteducationalproviderswithinthedualstudies framework(kupferandstertz2011,29).dualstudyprogrammesaremostcommonlyofered inengineeringsciencesandbusinesstudies. Theprofleofadualstudyprogrammeislargelydeterminedbyinternalnegotiationsand acooperationagreementbetweenthetrainingfrmandtheorganisationalprovider(mucke andschwiedrzik2000,15;interviewde4).also,thereisasignifcantdegreeoffexibilityin thespecifcformsofcoordinationbetweenfrmsandeducationalorganisation(e.g.reischl 2008).Thereisnofederalstandardwithregardtothesalariesofthoseenroledindualstudy programmes.however,inthecaseoftheausbildungsintegrierendedualstudyprogrammesit isdecreedthatthestudentshouldreceiveatleastthesamepaymentthataregularapprentice(atuppersecondarylevel)wouldreceive.theactualpaymentforstudentsindualstudy programmesissometimeshigher(e.g.interviewde2),dependingonspecifclocalregulationsorsometimesevenonindividualnegotiationsbetweenthestudentandthefrm. Onereasonforthislimiteddegreeofstandardisationisthatemployeeasociationsand tradeunionsplayarathermarginalroleinthegovernanceofthehighereducationsystem unionsareonlyslowlystartingtopickuponthetopicofdualstudyprogrammes,aiming toincreasetheirinfuenceinthisgrowingfeld(e.g.ver.di2014).overal,thisrepresentsa declineinthedegreeofcolectiveorganisationwithinthegermanskilformationsystem.for example,universitiesandotherheinstitutionsoferingdualstudyprogrammeshavegreater autonomyintheirdoingsthanschoolsinthevetfeld.individualfrmstakeadvantageof

10 8 L.GRAF the morelooselyregulatedenvironmentinthehefeldtostrategicalysetupdualstudy programmeswithindividualhighereducationinstitutions.inthisway,thedualprincipleis adaptedtonewpurposes,while rigidlydefned traditionaloccupationscanbeadjustedto thespecifcskildemandsoffrms.forexample,onlyinafewcasesthereareemployer/works councilagreementsinplaceregardingdualstudyprogrammes(seebuse2009).theactual procesoflearning,thecuriculaandtheofcialstatusofstudentsintheworkplacelargely dependsonthespecifcagreementsbetweenthefrmandthestudentaswelasbetween thefrmandthehighereducationinstitutions(seebecker2006;interviewsde8,de9). Dualstudyprogrammesmostlylackclearconceptsfortheintegrationofthein-frmlearningphaseswiththestudyphasesattheeducationalorganisation(see,e.g.Heidemannand Koch2013;InterviewDE10).Thislackoforganisationandnationalstandardisationcontrasts withthemorecolectivelyorganiseddualapprenticeshiptrainingatuppersecondarylevel. However,manyfrmsarenotparticularlyeagertodevelopsimilarstandardsalsofordual studiesasthedualstudyprogrammesalowthemtoutilisegreaterindividualleewaythan dualapprenticeshiptrainingatuppersecondarylevel.firmsseedualstudyprogrammes mainlyasasafeandcheapoptiontorecruitskiledworkersatatimewhenitbecomes increasinglydifculttofndsuitablecandidatesonthegermanlabourmarket(seekupfer, Köhlmann-Eckel,andKolter2014).Anotherproblemwiththelackofstandardisationisthat itmakesitdifcultforindividualstoaccesinformationaboutdualstudies:duetothecomplexityofthisemergingfeld,thedatabaseofthefederalinstituteforvocationaleducation andtrainingondualstudyprogrammesisnotyetencompasingalavailableprogrammes (InterviewsDE5,DE6),whichimpliesthatinterestedindividualscannotgetacompletepictureoftherapidlyexpandingsectorofhybridprogrammes. Nevertheles,dualstudyprogrammescanbeconsideredhybridorganisationalforms forthreereasons.firstly,theycombinelearningprocesesfrombothvetandhe,andthe curiculausualystrestheequalimportanceofacademicandfrm-basedlearning(d1). Secondly,theseprogrammesareneithersolelysubjecttotraditionalHEgovernancenorto traditionalvetgovernance,buttoamixofboth(d2).yet,theirnewmodeofgovernanceis lesbasedonacolectiveapproachbutdisplayssegmentalisttendencies(seediscusionin comparativesection).thirdly,withregardtotheirlocation,theylinkuppersecondaryvet andpost-secondaryhe,forexample,throughthedoublequalifcationgrantedbytheausbildungsintegrierendeprogrammes(d3).assuch,dualstudyprogrammessignifyarapidly expandinghybridsegmentatthenexusofvetandhe.thisexpansion,inturn,isposible becausethissegmenthasbeengraftedasalayerinbetweenthetraditionalandhard-to-reformfeldsofdualapprenticeshiptraininganduniversityeducation.thus,layeringrepresents thedominantmodeofgradualinstitutionalchangeinthegermancase. Switzerland:hybridconfgurationofdualapprenticeshiptraining, vocationalbaccalaureateanduniversitiesofappliedsciences TheSwisconfgurationofinitialvocationaleducationandtraininganduniversitiesofapplied sciences(ivet-uas)isahybridorganisationalmodelthatsystematicalylinksthevocational andtheacademicworldsoflearning.thisintegratedmodelwasestablishedthroughasustainedcolectiveefortonthepartofkeyvetstakeholders(interviewsch1 3,CH5,CH16). TheSwisUASwereformalycreatedin1995throughanupgradingofthemostprestigious schoolsofhighervocationaleducationandtraining,highertechnicalschoolsandhigher

11 JOURNAL OFVOCATIONAL EDUCATION &TRAINING 9 economicandadministrationschools.thisupgradingwasinitialydrivenbytheseschools interestingainingbeterinternationalrecognition.thatis,itwastherepresentativesofthese educationalorganisationsthemselvesthatinitialytriggeredtheestablishmentoftheuas (seekienerandgonon1998).moreover,accordingtoculpepper(2007),theestablishment oftheuaswaspushedbytherelativedominanceoflargeexport-orientedenterprisesin Switzerlandandtheirinterestinhigherlevelsofgeneraleducation.However,smal-and medium-sizedenterprisesandtheirasociationsarealsoinfuentialplayersintheswis skilformationsystem,facilitatingratherself-preservativeinstitutionalchange(trampusch 2010).Atahigherlevel,theSwisfederationpromotedthecreationoftheUASasameansto stimulatetheeconomy(zoso2006;i IV).TheSwisUASarecloselyconnectedtotheeconomyandthehighervocationsandareintendedtotrainindividualsforaspecifcoccupation whilealsoprovidingthemwithascientifcfoundation(bv1995,art.3;weberetal.2010). TogetherwiththeUASanewcertifcateprogrammewasintroduced,namelythevocationalbaccalaureate.ItisworthnotingthatSwitzerlandleadsthethreecountriesanalysed inthispaperintermsoftheproportionofyouthenroledindualapprenticeshipsatupper secondarylevel(e.g.ebner2013).thisproportionisslightlymorethan60%inswitzerland (BundesamtfürStatistik2012).Thevocationalbaccalaureateistargetedatthislargegroup ofapprenticesandespecialythe mostambitiousamongthem.thepreparationforthe vocationalbaccalaureateexaminationtakesplaceinclasesparalelorsubsequentlytodual apprenticeshiptraining.thevocationalbaccalaureate availableinsixdiferentsubjectareas linkedtothestudyfeldsoferedatuas isoftenreferedtoasthe royalpath (Königsweg) totheswisuas(e.g.backes-gelnerandtuor2010;severalinterviews):itprovidesdirect accestothematicalyrelatedstudycoursesatuas.incontrast,holdersofanacademic baccalaureatefromanacademicsecondaryschoolarerequiredtocompleteaone-year practicalexperiencewithinthedesiredfeldofstudybeforetheycancommencestudies ataswisuas.thisregulationisintendedtopreventacademicdriftandtoensurethat theuasremainfrmlygroundedinvocationaltraining(interviewch13).forexample,vet stakeholders maintainthatthevocationalbaccalaureatehastobethedominantpathto accesuas(gonon2013b,192). 2 Thequalityofthevocationalbaccalaureateisensuredby thefederalcommisionforthevocationalbaccalaureate(seegonon2013a, ),which iscomposedofbothvetandhestakeholders. In2011,morethanathirdofalSwishighereducationstudentsstudiedatuniversities ofappliedsciences(bundesamtfürstatistik2013),whichoferdegreesinthefeldsofengineering,busines,design,health,socialworkandart.attheswisuas(includinghigher educationinstitutionsofteachereducation),morethanhalfofalfreshmenhavepreviously acquiredavocationalbaccalaureate(outofthosewithadomestichighereducationentrance qualifcation)(bundesamtfürstatistik2011,6). 3 Atrendtowardsanacademisationofthe SwisUAS,renderingthemmoresimilartostandarduniversities,isopposedbytheactors intheswisvetsystem,whoactivelypromotethe diferentbutequal (andersartig,aber gleichwertig)principleintherelationshipbetweenvetandhe(seeweberetal.2010).the rootednesoftheswisuasinthevetsystemisalsorefectedintheirgenesis:thecreation oftheuaswassupervisedbythefederalofceforprofesionaleducationandtechnology (thenresponsibleforvet). TheSwisUAShavetheirownfederallawandthewaytheyaregovernedisrathersimilartothatoftherestoftheVETsector,primarilyasthesocialpartnersareinvolvedintheir steering.f orexample,thesocialpartnersareinterwoveninthedevelopmentoftheswis

12 10 L.GRAF UASthroughtheirengagementinthefederalcommisionforuniversitiesofappliedsciences (EFHK2014,13).Asaresult,theUASaremuchclosertotheeconomyandtheworldofwork thantraditionaluniversities.throughthecreationoftheivet-uasconfgurationwithits distincthybridprofle,thestakeholdersintheswissystemofdualapprenticeshiptraining managedtosecurethevetsystems traditionalyhighreputationanditsatractivenesfor talentedyoungpeople(interviewsch2,ch8). Insummary,theSwiscombinationofdualapprenticeshiptraining,vocationalbaccalaureateandUASrepresentsahybridorganisationalform.Firstly,thisIVET-UASconfguration bringstogethertypicallearningprocesesfrombothvetandhe(d1).secondly,thegovernanceofthisconfgurationentailselementsoftraditionalprocesesinboththedualsystem andtheuniversitysystem(d2).thirdly,theivet-uasconfgurationsystematicalylinksupper secondaryvetwithpost-secondaryhe(d3).thedevelopmentofthisconfgurationrepresentsanewarangementthatisaddedontopofestablishedinstitutionalproceduresand, assuch,canbecaledlayering.thislayering,however,doesnotcalintoquestionthecore organisingprincipleoftheswisvetsystembecauseitissmoothlyintegratedwithinthe overaleducationalsystemasalayerontopofthetraditionaldualapprenticeshiptraining system. ComparingAustria,GermanyandSwitzerland Inthissection,Icomparethethreecountrycaseswithregardto,frst,thedominantpatern ofinstitutionalchangeand,second,itsimplicationsforthecharacterofcolectiveskilformation.theanalysisfndsthat,frst,thebasicpaternofchangeissimilarinalthreecases butthat,second,thedevelopmentsingermanypresentagreaterchalengetothetradition ofcolectivelyorganisedskilformationthanthoseinaustriaorswitzerland. LayeringatthenexusofVETandHE Thehybridorganisationalformsfoundinthethreecasestudiesrefectandreproduce thevocationalprincipleasoneofthekeycharacteristicofvetinaustria,germanyand Switzerland,butalsointegrateelementsofacademiclearningastheychalengerathernarrowlydefnedoccupationalcategories.Crucialy,theybuildonasignifcantdegreeofparity ofesteembetweenvetandhe.thatis,acentralpreconditionforthegenesisofthesehybrid organisationalformsofwork-basedacademiceducationhasbeentheexistenceofvetand HEfeldsthatbothenjoyahighreputation.Notably,theinstitutionalrelationshipbetween VETandHEisconfgureddiferentlyinothermajorsystemsofskilformation.Forexample, infrance,whereful-timeschool-basedvetisveryprominent,orintheanglophonecountries,inwhichthefocusofvetis moreon learning-on-the-job (cf.trampusch2014),the reputationandquantitativesignifcanceofvetrelativetoheisnotashighasinaustria, GermanyandSwitzerland. Thehistoricalsketchesofthegenesisandexpansionofthehybridorganisationalforms inaustria,germanyandswitzerlandprovideevidenceforgradualinstitutionalchangein theformoflayering,becauseanewsetofarangementsisaddedtoestablishedinstitutionalprocedures.althreevariantsofwork-basedacademiceducationrepresentalayer graftedinbetweenthefeldsofvetandhe.thus,theypresentachalengetoprevious asumptionsthatestablishedinstitutionalcomplementaritiesandstratifcationpaternsin

13 JOURNAL OFVOCATIONAL EDUCATION &TRAINING 11 thethreecoordinatedmarketeconomies(seehalandsoskice2001)wouldpreventsuch boundary-spanningorganisations.bynow,althreehybridorganisationalformsaresolidly establishedwithintherespectiveskilformationsystems. Thus,theresultsoftheprocestracingdemonstratethatthetheoryofgradualinstitutional changeofershelpfulconcepts(inthisspecifccasethemodeoflayering),whichhelpusto beterunderstandinstitutionalchangesinotherwisehard-to-reformfeldssuchassystems ofdualapprenticeshiptraininganduniversity-basedhighereducation.theanalysisalso contributestothetheoreticalliteratureasitshowshowlayeringcantakeplacenotonlyin relationtoonefeldbutratheratthenexusoftwofelds,inthiscasevetandhe,bydrawing onorganisationalandinstitutionalelementsfromboth.asaconsequenceofthischange proces,theinstitutionaldividebetweenvetandhecontinuestobeprevalentinalthree countries;thedivideisinfactcomplementedbylayeringintheformofhybridsspanning theboundarybetweenvetandhe.thus,atleastintheshortrun,layeringistosomeextent alsoasociatedwithastabilisationofthetraditionalinstitutionallogicsofvetandheasit reducesthepresureforreform(seediscusionbelow). Country-leveldiferencesintheimpactoflayering Theconceptoflayeringisefectiveatcapturingthephenomenonofthedevelopmentof hybridorganisationalformsatthenexusofvetandheinthecolectiveskilssystemsof Austria,GermanyandSwitzerland.However,whilethepaternsoflayeringinalthreecountriesarebroadlysimilar,wecanalsoobservecountry-levelvarianceswithregardtothe institutionalftofthehybridorganisationalformswithintherespectivenationalsystem. Thus,inAustriaandSwitzerland,thehybridorganisationalformshavebeenintegratedinto thetraditionalmodelofthecolectivegovernanceofskilformation,whereasthegerman dualstudyprogrammessignifyadeparturefromthisgovernancemodel. Morespecifcaly,intermsofgovernancestructures,theimplicationofongoinglayering ofvetandheisnotthesameinthesethreecountries.thus,layeringislinkedtotheincreasingdisorganisationofcolectiveoversightinthegermancase,whileithelpstouphold colectivegovernanceinthesmalerstatesofaustriaandswitzerland.thatis,thedualstudy programmesingermanynolongerplayalongwiththe old rulesofcorporatismand,hence, chalengethetraditionalcolectivistcharacterofvocationaltrainingingermany.incontrast totheaustrianandtheswishybridcases,inthecaseofthegermandualstudyprogrammes nationalstandardisationisverylow giventhevarietyofshapesthatdualstudyprogrammes takeindiferentlocationsingermany. Especialylargeindustrialfrmshaveuseddualstudyprogrammesasawaytocreatea segmentalistsolutiontomeettheirspecifcskildemands. 4 Thisimpliesthattheselargefrms nolongercooperatetothesameextentwithsmalerfrms,assmalerfrmsusualycannot afordtoinvestin moreacademicalyorientedstudyprogrammes.smalerfrmstypicaly remaincommitedtothetraditionaldualapprenticeshiptrainingsystematthesecondary level.largefrms,ontheotherhand,areincreasinglyimportingthedualapprenticeship principleintohighereducation,wheretheycan moreeasilycontrolaccestotheseprogrammes,whilethestatestillargelyfnancestheacademicpartofthetraining.thishas introducedanewformofsocialselectivitywithingermanvetasfrmstendtochoosethe best-performingapplicantswithahighereducationentrancecertifcate(abitur )fortheir dualstudyprogrammes.infact,ananalysisofdegreecoursesinthefeldsofbusinesand

14 12 L.GRAF technologyinbaden-wuertembergfndsthattheaverageabitur gradeofstudentsindual studyprogrammesisasgoodasorevenslightlybeterthanthatofstudentsinregularuniversityprogrammes(krameretal.2011).consideringalsothelimitedpresencesoftradeunions atthehighereducationlevel,whomightpushforgreaterstandardisation,theexpansionof dualstudyprogrammespresentsachalengetothetraditionalunderstandingofindustrial relationsinthegermanmodel,previouslybasedonsocialpartnership.notbeingoverseen bycolectiveactorssuchasunionsorchambers,theexpansionofdualstudyprogrammes representsadeclineinasociationalself-regulationand,intheabsenceofcompensating (centralised)stateregulation,alsodestandardisation. 5 Fromthisperspective,thegenesis andongoingexpansionofdualstudyprogrammessignifesaprogresingexhaustionof colectiveskilformation. ItisbeyondthescopeofthispapertoelaborateadetailedcausalargumentforthedifferentnationaltrajectoriesoflayeringinGermanyversusAustriaandSwitzerland.However, theempiricalfndingsindicatethattheinstitutionalenvironmentinthetwosmalerstates ofaustriaandswitzerlandhelpsthesetonarowpoliticalinequalities(seealsokatzenstein 1984)asitfacilitatestheinclusionofalmajorstakeholdersinthegovernanceofthehybrid organisationalforms.thisisrelevantbecausethequestionofwhichactorsareinvolvedin theconstructionandimplementationofhybridorganisationalforms(andtowhatextent)is animportantone.securingcolectiveskilformationcrucialydependsontheinclusionofal majorstakeholdersintheongoingprocesofreform.austriaandswitzerlandseemtoofer morefavourableinstitutionalconditionsforsustainedcolectiveorganisation.thatis,austria andswitzerlandhavebeenmoresuccesfulthangermanyinfndingaconsensualapproach tolayering,which,inturn,ismoreefectiveincompensatingforthedisadvantagesweaker socialgroupsface.incontrast,inthegermansystemsomekeysocietalactors,mostnotably unionsandchambers,areunderepresentedinshapingtheprocesofgradualinstitutional change.asaconsequence,ingermany,frmsandhighereducationinstitutionscanexploit work-basedacademiceducationto cherypick thebest-performinghighschoolgraduates forfrm-specifctrainingandneglectmorecolectiveconcerns. Conclusion ThecasestudiesfoundthatonecentralwayinwhichtheinstitutionaldividebetweenVET andheisaddresedisthroughthedevelopmentofhybridorganisationalformsofadvanced work-basedacademiceducationthatspantheboundarybetweenbothorganisationalfelds. ThisisilustratedbytheVETcolegesinAustria,thedualstudyprogrammesinGermany andtheivet-uasconfgurationinswitzerland.yet,inalthreecases,thefeldsofvetand HEremaindistinctdespitethepresenceofthesehybridorganisationalforms.Thatis,the institutionaldividebetweenvetandhecontinuestobeprevalentinalthreecountriesbut iscomplementedbyahybridlayerthatspanstheboundarybetweenvetandhe.infact, itcouldbethatlayeringevenservestoshieldofgreaterandmoreprofoundchalengesto thecoreinstitutionallogicofthetraditionalfeldsofvetandhe.inotherwords,itseems thatcoreelementsoftheinstitutionalconfgurationofthefeldsofvetandhearetosome degreestabilisedasthepresurestoreformthemis atleastpartly absorbedbythehybrid organisationalarangements. Whiletheseobservationsarevalidforalthreehybridorganisationalforms,thosein AustriaandSwitzerlandhavegreaterpotentialtoincreasesocial mobilityforagroupof

15 JOURNAL OFVOCATIONAL EDUCATION &TRAINING 13 youngpeoplewhowouldotherwisebeunlikelytochoosethe standard routesintohevia academicsecondaryschools.thatis,boththeaustrianandtheswisapproacheshavea greaterpotentialinpromotingsocioeconomicequalitythantherapidlyexpandingdual studyprogrammesingermany.thecapacityofthegermandualstudyprogrammesto increasesocialmobilityislimitedincrucialways.themainproblemisthataccesingthese demandingprogrammesusualyrequiresaverygoodhighereducationentrancecertifcate (whilethereisnosuchformalentrancerequirementfortraditionaldualapprenticeshiptrainingingermany).furthermore,itisprimarilythefrmthatselectstheparticipantsandnot thestateorthehighereducationinstitutions(asisotherwisethecaseinthegermanhigher educationsystem).thus,prospectivestudentsusualyapplydirectlytothefrm,whichhas itsownselectioncriteriaandismainlyinterestedinhiringthebest-performinghighschool graduates. Atamoretheoreticallevel,theanalysisshowedthatinalthreecountriesgradualinstitutionalchangeintheformoflayeringhastakenplaceinresponsetoanoverlyrigidinstitutionaldividebetweenVETandHE.However,whilelayeringinAustriaandSwitzerland hascontributedtothemodernisationofcolectiveskilformation,ingermany,itilustrates segmentalisttendencies.thus,amajorreasonwhygermanfrmsareexpandingdualstudy programmesistoavoidstrictcolectivestandardisationproceduresatthesecondarylevel. However,furtherresearchisneededtouncoverthecausesfortheseintragroupdiferences andtounderstandbeterthelong-termconsequencesofthesechangesontheevolving relationshipbetweenvetandhe. Notes 1. IncomparisontosecondarylevelvocationalpathwaysinGermanyandSwitzerland,the pathwayoferedbytheaustrianvetcolegesenjoysthehighestacademicreputation,given thatitprovidesfulacademicaccestouniversities,universitiesofappliedsciencesandshortcycleacademicqualifcationoptions. 2. In1997,avocationalbaccalaureatewasalsointroducedinAustria.However,theAustrian vocationalbaccalaureatedifersfromtheswisone.forexample,whiletheaustrianversion qualifesitsholdersforaccestoalsubjectswithinthehighereducationsystem,inswitzerland holdersofthevocationalbaccalaureateneedtocompleteaspecialsupplementaryexamination iftheywanttoenteruniversitiesorthefederalinstitutesoftechnology. 3. ThespecialroleoftheSwisUASincomparisontotheuniversitiesofappliedsciencesin AustriaandGermanyisexemplifedbythefactthatSwitzerlandistheonlycaseinwhichthe educationalbackgroundsofthemajorityofstudentsatuniversitiesofappliedsciencesinvolve dualapprenticeshiptrainingand,thus,extendedin-frmtrainingphases(graf2013, ). 4. Ontheconceptofsegmentalism,seeThelenandBusemeyer(2012). 5. Ontheconceptofasociationalself-regulation,seeStreeckandSchmiter(1985). ORCID LukasGraf htp:/orcid.org/ References Af,Josef,ElisabethPaschinger,andJohannaRechberger TheRealisationofHybridQualifcations inaustria. InHybridQualifcations,editedbyThomasDeisinger,JosefAf,AlisonFuler,andChristian HelmsJørgensen,13 52.Bern:PeterLang.

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