Mechanisms of polycomb group-mediated gene regulation in Arabidopsis thaliana

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Transkript:

Research Collection Doctoral Thesis Mechanisms of polycomb group-mediated gene regulation in Arabidopsis thaliana Author(s): Villar, Corina Belle R. Publication Date: 2010 Permanent Link: https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-a-006523012 Rights / License: In Copyright - Non-Commercial Use Permitted This page was generated automatically upon download from the ETH Zurich Research Collection. For more information please consult the Terms of use. ETH Library

Diss. ETH Nr. 19413 Mechanisms of Polycomb group-mediated gene regulation in Arabidopsis thaliana A dissertation submitted to the ETH ZURICH For the degree of Doctor of Sciences Presented by Corina Belle R. Villar Master of Science, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany Born on June 1, 1980 Citizen of the Philippines Accepted on the recommendation of Prof. Dr. Claudia Köhler, examiner Dr. Daniel Schubert, co-examiner 2010

Summary Inside the nucleus, DNA is associated with proteins called histones to form chromatin. Aside from compacting DNA, chromatin structure regulates access to the DNA by proteins and other macromolecules, thereby also regulating gene expression, among other DNA-related processes. Regulating gene expression is especially important during the development of multicellular organisms, as different cells at different stages of the life cycle require the expression of different genes. Chromatin structure can be altered by modifying the histones, modifying the DNA itself, and/or by the action of chromatin remodeling factors. Polycomb group (PcG) proteins are evolutionarily conserved proteins that establish gene repression by modifying histones. They act in concert with other chromatin modifiers to regulate expression of specific genes. Arabidopsis thaliana has different PcG proteins that control different aspects of its development. The FERTILIZATION INDEPENDENT SEED (FIS) PcG complex functions during seed development in the female gametophyte and the endosperm to repress specific genes. One of its targets is the PHERES1 (PHE1) gene, which codes for a transcription factor. The FIS complex controls PHE1 expression by genomic imprinting, the monoallelic expression of specific genes dependent on the parent-oforigin. PHE1 is maternally imprinted and paternally expressed. Binding of the FIS complex is not sufficient to establish PHE1 imprinting. PHE1 imprinting also requires the presence of tandem repeats at a differentially methylated region downstream of the PHE1 coding region. These results support the model that the unmethylated regions of the maternal PHE1 allele block transcription either by formation of a repressive intrachromosomal loop or by acting as an insulator. In contrast, in the paternal allele where this region is methylated, either loop formation is inhibited or the region fails to act as an insulator. In roots, lack of PcG function results in the formation of embryonic roots that can form somatic embryos. Similarly, lack of the putative chromatin remodeling factor PICKLE (PKL) causes cells to de-differentiate and to form somatic embryos. PKL targets in the roots include PcG genes SWINGER and EMBRYONIC FLOWER 2. 4

SWN and EMF are part of a PcG complex that is responsible for trimethylating histone H3 at lysine 27 (H3K27me3). Therefore, lack of PKL and its close homolog PICKLE-RELATED 2 (PKR2) resulted in reduced PcG activity and lower H3K27me3 levels and increased expression of some PcG target genes. Furthermore, PKL and PKR2 were shown to activate some PcG target genes. Therefore PKL and PKR2 counteract PcG repressive activities and have Trithorax group (trxg)-like functions during development. This study also reavealed that PcG proteins regulate seed germination. Transition to germination is controlled by the relative levels of the hormones gibberrellic acid (GA) and abscisic acid (ABA). Under normal germination conditions, GA levels increase while ABA levels drop rapidly. This drop in ABA also correlates with a drop in the expression of the ABA-induced genes ABSCISIC ACID INSENSITIVE 3 (ABI3) and ABI5. This study showed that ABI3 repression determines the timing of seed germination, and that decrease in ABI3 expression levels is accompanied by an increase in Polycomb group (PcG) gene expression as well as an increase in PcG activity as shown by increased level of H3K27me3 at the ABI3 locus during germination. These results suggest that ABI3 repression during seed germination is due to PcG activity at the ABI3 locus. The study also showed that PKL likely facilitates PcG-mediated ABI3 repression during germination. 5

Zusammenfassung Chromatin ist eine hochmolekulare Struktur aus DNA, DNA-bindenden Histonen und anderen Chromatin-assoziierten Proteinen. Neben der Kompaktierung der DNA spielt das Chromatin auch eine Rolle in der Zugänglichkeit der DNA für Proteine und andere Makromoleküle und reguliert auf diese Weise diegenexpression. Die Regulation der Genexpression ist besonders wichtig während der Entwicklung von multizellulären Organismen, da die verschiedenen Zellen während den einzelnen Entwicklungsstufen die Expression verschiedener Gene benötigen. Die Chromatinstruktur kann durch Modifikationen der Histone, der DNA selber und/oder durch die Aktivität von Chromatin Remodeling Factors verändert werden. Polycomb Gruppen (PcG) Proteine sind evolutionär konservierte Proteine, die die Genexpression unterdrücken indem sie Histone modifizieren. Diese Proteine agieren zusammen mit anderen Chromatin Modifikationen, um die Expression spezifischer Gene zu regulieren. Arabidopsis thaliana besitzt verschiedene PcG Proteine die unterschiedliche Aspekte der Entwicklung kontrollieren. Der FERTILIZATION INDEPENDENT SEED (FIS) PcG Komplex ist im weiblichen Gametophyten und dem Endosperm aktiv und reprimiert spezifische Gene. Eines dieser Zielgene ist das Gen PHERES1 (PHE1), das für einen Transkriptionsfaktor kodiert. Der FIS Komplex kontrolliert die Expression von PHE1 durch genomische Prägung. Genomische Prägung ist ein epigenetisches Phänomen, bei welchem nur ein Allel eines Gens aktiv ist. Die Aktivität des Alleles wird dabei massgeblich davon bestimmt, von welchem Elter es vererbt wird. PHE1 ist maternal inaktiv und väterlich aktiv, wobei die Bindung des FIS Komplexes alleine nicht ausreicht, um die Prägung von PHE1 zu verursachen. Die Inaktivierung von PHE1 erfordert auch die Anwesenheit von unterschiedlich methylierten Sequenzen, die sich im Tandem wiederholen und sich hinter der kodierenden Region von PHE1 befinden. Diese Ergebnisse unterstützen ein Modell, in dem die unmethylierten Regionen des mütterlichen PHE1 Allels durch Bildung einer intrachromosomalen Schleife oder durch Isolatorwirkung die Transkription blockieren. Im Gegensatz dazu kann das väterliche Allel keine Schleife bilden oder eine isolierende Wirkung ausüben, da die Region mit den Tandemsequenzen methyliert ist. 6

In Wurzeln führt das Fehlen von PcG Proteinen zur Bildung von embryonischen Wurzeln, die somatische Embryos formen können. Das Fehlen des mutmasslichen Chromatin Remodeling Factor PICKLE (PKL) verursacht einen ähnlichen Effekt, Zellen re-differenzieren und bilden somatische Embryos. Zielgene von PKL in den Wurzeln sind die PcG Gene SWINGER und EMBRYONIC FLOWER 2, die für PcG Proteine kodieren, die wiederum für die Trimethylierung von Histon H3 am Lysin 27 (H3K27me3) verantwortlich sind. Aus diesem Grund führt ein Fehlen von PKL und einem sehr ähnlichen Protein, PICKLE-RELATED 2 (PKR2) zu einem niedrigeren H3K27me3-Gehalt und erhöhter Aktivität einiger PcG Zielgene. Ausserdem konnte gezeigt werden, dass PKL und PKR2 bestimmte PcG Zielgene aktivieren. Folglich wirken PKL und PKR2 der unterdrückenden Aktivität der PcG Proteine entgegen und zeigen eine ähnliche Funktion wie Trithorax Gruppen (TrxG) Proteine während der Entwicklung. In dieser Studie konnte auch gezeigt werden, dass PcG Proteine massgeblich die Keimung regulieren.. Der Übergang zur Keimung wird durch die relative Menge der Hormone Gibberellinsäure (GA) und Abscisinsäure (ABA) kontrolliert. Unter normalen Keimungsbedingungen steigt der GA-Gehalt an während der ABA-Gehalt rapide abnimmt. Dieser Abfall im ABA-Gehalt korreliert mit einer sinkenden Aktivität der ABA-induzierten Gene ABSCISIC ACID INSENSITIVE 3 (ABI3) und ABI5. Experimente haben gezeigt, dass der Zeitpunkt der Keimung durch den ABI3- Gehalt bestimmt wird und dass die sinkende ABI3-Aktivität während der Keimung sowohl mit steigenden mrna levels der PcG Gene CLF und SWN als auch mit einer erhöhten PcG Aktivität (H3K27me3-Gehalt) am ABI3 Locus nach der Keimung korreliert. Ausserdem konnte gezeigt werden, dass PKL wahrscheinlich die Bindung der PcG Proteine an den ABI3 Locus erleichtert. 7