Mechanistic analysis of pathogen-host interactions in Salmonella-induced diarrhea

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1 Research Collection Doctoral Thesis Mechanistic analysis of pathogen-host interactions in Salmonella-induced diarrhea Author(s): Felmy, Boas Publication Date: 2015 Permanent Link: This page was generated automatically upon download from the ETH Zurich Research Collection. For more information please consult the Terms of use. ETH Library

2 DISS. ETH NO Mechanistic analysis of pathogen-host interactions in Salmonella-induced diarrhea A thesis submitted to attain the degree of DOCTOR OF SCIENCES of ETH ZURICH (Dr. sc. ETH Zurich) presented by Boas Felmy Diplom-Biochemiker, Freie Universität Berlin born on citizen of Germany accepted on the recommendation of Prof. Dr. Wolf-Dietrich Hardt Prof. Dr. Manfred Kopf Prof. Dr. Mathias Heikenwälder 2015

3 Summary Summary Salmonella enterica enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) are rod-shaped, gram-negative bacteria which are a major cause of foodborne diseases all over the world. The symptoms include diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal pain. The inflamed gut provides the environment S. Typhimurium needs to survive and replicate. To colonize the gut mucosa and trigger inflammation, S. Typhimurium employs several strategies which are mediated by virulence factors. One of these is the potent inflammation inducing substance lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a major constituent of the outer cell membrane of S. Typhimurium. The type three secretion system-1 (TTSS-1) is the major virulence factor inducing the internalization of the bacterium into intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) of the host. This process is called the "classical" route of S. Typhimurium infection. TTSS-2 is another major virulence factor. It is of crucial importance for systemic infection and the "alternative" route of S. Typhimurium infection which is independent of invasion into IECs. Importantly, pathogen invasion is tightly associated with the initiation of a proinflammatory response leading to overt inflammation of the intestine. S. Typhimurium employs several virulence factors to initiate inflammation and ensure its survival in the gut. However, the relative importance of the pathogen's virulence factors and of innate immune responses had remained unclear. In this thesis the contribution of these virulence factors to S. Typhimurium induced diarrhea is analyzed in detail. In chapter II, I analyzed the virulence of S. Typhimurium in an immunocompromised mouse, a model of chronic granulomatous disease. Patients suffering from this disease are deficient in one of the most important defense mechanisms against pathogens, the NADPH oxidase. They also have an approximately ten times increased risk for S. Typhimurium infections. Mice lacking NADPH oxidase were infected with S. Typhimurium lacking both, TTSS-1 and TTSS-2. Interestingly, although these bacteria were non-pathogenic in wild type mice, they caused pronounced inflammation in NADPH oxidase-deficient mice. In the follow up experiments, we showed that S. Typhimurium ΔTTSS-1/ΔTTSS-2 subverts antigen-sampling cells of the host's gut immune system to enter into the lamina propria and that Myd88-dependent innate immune defenses are eliciting enteropathy. Thus, the fine balance between local pathogen growth and the intensity of the mucosal response determine the disease. In chapter III, we analyzed how TTSS-2 affects the initial phase of mucosal infection. TTSS-2 is well described to affect replication at systemic sites, but its effect on replication of S. Typhimurium in the gut mucosa had remained unclear. Therefore, we established a novel protocol to quantify absolute tissue counts. Surprisingly, TTSS-2 did not influence bacterial numbers in the gut mucosa. Thus, SPI-2 is not regulating replication in the gut mucosa. Furthermore, we developed a tool to quantify the replication of S. Typhimurium inside IECs of the gut mucosa. Strikingly, quite a high percentage of S. Typhimurium found inside gut epithelial cells did not replicate at all. Therefore, the S. Typhimurium 9

4 Summary population inside IECs replicates at a very heterogeneous rate. These findings will be the basis for future work on the underlying mechanisms. In chapter IV, we addressed the responsiveness of IECs to pathogens and their virulence factors. The available literature on this topic turned out to be inconsistent and therefore conclusions differed substantially. In order to address IEC responsiveness, we established a novel live microscopy setup for imaging activation of the proinflammatory NF-κB pathway. Surprisingly, S. Typhimurium-induced NFκB activation in IECs was limited to "patches" of crypts which were interspersed by large areas of nonresponding mucosa. To further address the underlying mechanism, we simplified our system and addressed the responsiveness of IECs to the virulence factor LPS. We unraveled that lamina propria cells are the primary sentinels detecting LPS and subsequently activate NF-κB signaling in IECs. Of note, the activation of NF-κB in IECs was not dependent on the LPS receptor TLR4. These observations suggest a mechanism amplifying the proinflammatory response to LPS. Since NF-κB is activated in the early stages of S. Typhimurium infection, interfering with this process might provide means for ameliorating the disease. Overall, this thesis contributes to our understanding of the mechanisms S. Typhimurium uses to induce mucosal inflammation. The data presented might inspire novel strategies to interfere with S. Typhimurium induced diarrhea and ameliorate the disease. 10

5 Zusammenfassung Zusammenfassung Salmonella enterica enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) sind stabförmige, gram-negative Bakterien. Diese Bakterien sind weltweit einer der Hauptgründe für Lebensmittelvergiftungen. Die Erkrankung äussert sich in Durchfall, Erbrechen und Unterleibsschmerzen. Der entzündete Darm stellt eine Umgebung dar in der S. Typhimurium replizieren können. Um die Entzündung zu initiieren benutzt S. Typhimurium verschiedene Strategien. Für diese setzt das Pathogen Virulenzfaktoren ein. Zu diesen gehört ein Bestandteil der äusseren Membran der Bakterien, das Lipopolysaccharid (LPS). Dieses ist eine sehr stark entzündungsauslösende Substanz. Ein weiterer wichtiger Virulenzfaktor ist das Typ III Sekretionssystem (TTSS-1), welches die Internalisierung der Bakterien in intestinale Epithelzellen (iez) des Wirts induziert. Dieser Infektionsweg wird als "klassisch" bezeichnet. Ein weiterer wichtiger Virulenzfaktor ist das TTSS-2, welches sehr wichtig ist für die systemische Infektion und den sogenannten "alternativen" (iez-unabhängigen) Infektionsweg. Die Epithelschicht schirmt das unter Normalbedingungen sterile Körperinnere vom Darmlumen ab. Pathogen Invasion und Präsenz von Pathogenen in der Eigenschicht induziert eine entzündungsfördernde Antwort von Wirtszellen, welche zur Entzündung des Darms und zu Durchfall führt. Die Bedeutung der Virulenzfaktoren von S. Typhimurium und die der Immunantwort ist nicht vollständig geklärt. Deshalb wurde in dieser Doktorarbeit der Beitrag von verschiedenen Virulenzfaktoren zur Induktion von Durchfall detailliert analysiert. In Kapitel II untersuchte ich die Virulenz von S. Typhimurium in immungeschwächten Mäusen. Wir benutzen ein Model für Septische Granulomatose. Patienten, die an dieser Krankheit leiden, fehlt die NADPH Oxidase, ein Protein welches involviert ist in eine der wichtigsten Immunantworten gegen Pathogene. Patienten mit Septischer Granulomatose erkranken ungefähr zehnmal häufiger an Salmonellose als der Durchschnitt der Bevölkerung. S. Typhimurium ohne die Virulenzfaktoren TTSS-1 und TTSS-2, war in Wildtypmäusen nicht krankheitserregend. Interessanterweise konnten diese Bakterien jedoch weiterhin Krankheit in immungeschwächten Mäusen, denen das Gen NADPH Oxidase fehlte, hervorrufen. In den durchgeführten Experimenten konnten wir zeigen, dass S. Typhimurium ΔTTSS-1/ΔTTSS-2 antigenabtastende Zellen des Darmimmunsystems nutzt um in die Lamina Propria zu gelangen. Des Weiteren fanden wir, dass die Entzündungsreaktion, die durch diese Infektion hervorgerufen wird, Myd88-abhängig ist. Dies zeigt, dass es eine feine Balance zwischen lokalem Pathogenwachstum und der Intensität der Schleimhautantwort gibt und dass dieses die Krankheit bestimmt. In Kapitel III haben wir analysiert, wie TTSS-2 die erste Phase der Schleimhautinfektion beeinflusst. TTSS-2 hat bekanntermassen einen Effekt auf die Vermehrung von S. Typhimurium in systemischen 11

6 Zusammenfassung Organen, der Effekt auf die Vermehrung in der Schleimhaut hingegen war ungeklärt. Deshalb haben wir ein neues Protokoll entwickelt um die absolute Anzahl von S. Typhimurium in der Schleimhaut zu bestimmen. Interessanterweise beeinflusst TTSS-2 die Anzahl an Bakterien in der intestinalen Schleimhaut nicht. Des Weiteren haben wir eine Methode entwickelt mit der wir die Vermehrung von S. Typhimurium direkt in iez der Darmschleimhaut beobachten und quantifizieren können. Überraschenderweise vermehrt sich ein grosser Teil von S. Typhimurium überhaupt nicht in iez und der Rest vervielfältigt sich mit einer sehr heterogenen Geschwindigkeit. Diese Ergebnisse stellen die Basis für zukünftige Arbeiten dar, die sich dem darunterliegenden Mechanismus widmen. In Kapitel IV haben wir die Fähigkeit von iez untersucht auf Pathogene und ihre Virulenzfaktoren zu reagieren. In der Literatur wurde dies sehr kontrovers diskutiert. Um diese Fähigkeit der iez zu untersuchen, etablierten wir einen Livemikroskopieansatz um die Aktivierung des entzündungsfördernden NF-κB Signalweges zu dokumentieren. Überraschenderweise fand diese Aktivierung von NF-κB durch S. Typhimurium nur in "Flecken" von Krypten statt, welche mit grossen Regionen von nicht-reagierender Schleimhaut voneinander abgetrennt waren. Um diesen Mechanismus weiter zu untersuchen vereinfachten wir unser System und untersuchten die NF-κB Aktivierung von iez nach Exposition mit dem Virulenzfaktor LPS. Wir zeigen, dass Immunzellen die Wachen der Eigenschicht sind. Sie detektieren LPS und aktivieren danach NF-κB in iezs. Interessanterweise war die Aktivierung in iez nicht von der Expression des LPS-Rezeptors TLR4 abhängig. Da NF-κB während der frühen Phasen der S. Typhimurium Infektion aktiviert wird, könnte eine Störung der indirekten NF-κB Aktivierung in iez eine Möglichkeit darstellen die Salmonellenerkrankung abzuschwächen. Insgesamt trägt diese Doktorarbeit dazu bei die Mechanismen besser zu verstehen, mit denen S. Typhimurium eine Darmentzündung und Durchfall hervorruft. Die Daten die hier präsentiert werden ermöglichen eventuell die Inspiration von neuen Strategien um in die Induktion von Durchfall durch S. Typhimurium eingreifen zu können was wiederum zu einer Verminderung des Schweregrades führen könnte. 12

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