Projektportfolio-Management Strategische Ausrichtung und Steuerung von Projektlandschaften Jörg Rietsch 1. Auflage Haufe Gruppe Freiburg München
Vorwort 13 1 Was Portfolio-Management mit Investitionen zu tun hat 19 1!..... ~~!.~~~!~()-~~~!l~~!:!':l.~-~! -~_<?_l_~!!:. ~-~~~-~~-~_(f_~-~!) a_l_l_~- ~-I\v!:_~!i.!~~!l.e!l_!:!.~.!~-~-~~!:!l ~~... lr.~-~~~-?.!.?.i~~~!~-~~~il-~.il?... ~9. 1.3 Das Gebot der Stunde - schnell und flexibel über Investitionen entscheiden 22 2 Portfolio-Management - Kernaufgaben und Kompetenzmodell 23 lil.....!?.~~-~()!.!.~~!~()::~~il~~~!':l.~.il!:~.<?-~p.~~!:!1:~!1:1.<?.~~g... ~~?*.... ~~~E~-~()!l_~~f.'.'_i_~-~-~~~!l-~.I\... ~--- -.--c - ----- 3?. 3 Die wichtigen Phasen im Portfolio-Management 29 i.t..... P.w.. 1?..~~~-~-Il.~.l?.~!~.1...-... 3.~ ~=~-!?_~e 1?._~~~-e_Il~~~-?.()!.!.~()!~()--_~~!l~~~:r:i:t.e.Ilts z~ _~i!l!::r:i:t.?.!.()~-~-~~~!:-~~-~-pf!:!l ~~ 4 Wie funktioniert Portfolio-Management? 35 ft~...!?.~~-?.!.?.i~~!.p?.~_!f<?.!~?.-~~-~~~-~-i\~~~-!!~!l... ~?. fj... ~~~}~!.?.!.?.i~~!p.?.~-~<??.?.:m~!!:~~~~~!l!.?...,... ~ t~...!?.~~-~?.g~a~~~()i!:~_!:m.~~~~~~!l!.~--- - ------------ --- ----- ----------- - ------ --- - ---- - -~ ~:-~-- - ---~~!-~()!.!f?.!~~~~~!l~~~!':l!:.i1!.~~-1!:!.~.~- ~-~-I1-~!l!.~E!l.~-~~!l -~!l~~~()~-~-~-!l? ~ ~:.?.?.()!.~-~()li()_~~~!l~~-~:r:i:t-~_i\!.!~~f!.~!l -~~!:j_ ~-~~~'!:!l~~!l-~i()e:!?.<?.~:1:1.i1~.i3~~t()~-~~-p ----- -- ------~ ~:.?:.~ ---- ~.<?.!!.<?.~:~P.~-~?.~_!f()_l_~?.:M~-~~-~-~~!l! ~?. ~:.?:.?...!()P::l?()~_:?.()!.!.~?.!~()~-~~~~~~!:!l~ ---- --- ---- - - --- -- - -- ----- --- - -- - -- - --- ---~?. 5 Was möchten Sie erreichen - das Portfolio-Management-Zielkreuz 51 6 Prozesse im Portfolio-Management 53 _~ ------!?-~~ -~~~~~~-~-~~-:!.?.~~!l.'!:!l~~-:.'!:!l~_?.!.()i~~~p.~.?.~~~~-~--(?::~~~!l~!l) ~_i_il~~il~~-il... ~~ :.?... P.~-~-g-~-~~-!!~~-~!l-~~~~~-~~~~~()i!:~.!~s...?.?. :.?:.~ ----~~~~!:-~~'!:!l~-~!:!..9~.!y. g~~~-~-------- ---- - ---- -- ---- -- -- -- ~ :.?:.?...!\1!:~.Il~~!:Il!.?.~hn~ll.~~!...?.~ }... ~I1!!:!.i~~!.~~~-~!~!l:1:1.I1~ 1 ~e.p.!i?.~.~~~!.'!:il.~...-~ 7
7 Organisationsstrukturen im Portfolio-Management 73 7.1 Welche Aufgaben auf der Ebene Unternehmensleitung/Business bzw....!?.~y~j.?.p.~~i1y.~!!.~!~~~~-~~-~~-~~~i1-~~~--- - --- - -- - - - -- --- - --'....?.?.?..2.... :v'!.e.~~-e-~~f-~-~-~~il.~~~~-~t~~~il~.?.()!.~-~()g()_-_~'.l:i1~~~!i:t.~.!lt _~:U. ~!.f~.~~~-il.~j_i:i_ci...?.?. 7.3 Welche Aufgaben auf der Ebene des PMO (Projekt-Management-Office) zu erfüllen sind 76 -------------------------- ---------------------------?.:~--... Y!.<?.~~Il. ~~~9!.!. ~~-~-?.!?.i~~~()!.~f()l~()~-~~~~~!i:t.~il-~~~~~~-i-~~il~. ()!.~'.l:i1!~'.l:!()!.!~~j:t_?...?.?. ;J::::::~~!~~i~[~~:ti~1~r~:::~~::::::::::::: ::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::: ::::: :::: ::::: ::::::::;~ 7. 7 Praxisbeispiel aus einer länderübergreifenden...?.()~-~~::~a~.!.m:~.l~~-~-~()i1... ~.9.?.:?:.~-----~~~-~-~-~()I1~J-~_?.!()i~~~P.()!.!f()~~()~!:-'1:~'.l:~~!i:t~Il~~g_r~_a1l.~~~~i()!l...?.O.?.:?:.?... ~Il~~-~!:~9.~~-~-!1~~~~P.()!.!f?.~~()~-~~-~-~~~~::g!.~'.l:Il~~'.l:!~();i:t... ~-~ 7. 7.3 Umgang mit der Verantwortung in großen...?.!?.i~~~!.~~()~~~il~~~~~il~~g-~~~il_i_~~~-i()!l~il...?.2. 7.8 Risiken bei der Einführung und Etablierung einer...?.!()j~~~()!.~~()~~~~~\\~:9!3~~~~-~()!l... 7.8.1 Das Projekt-Management-Office ist durch das projektbezogene 83 Tagesgeschäft ausgelastet 83?.:?.:2.... ~~Il. ~~~~~~t~()~!()!i:t_~l!p.~~~~!~...?.~?.:~-- -----~~-~9~_1_~~-~-~-~~~-~!l~~-~~-~-~~.:::rr.~~~~-~-<?.Il~?.~-~f()J_i_<?_~M~.~-~-~-~~I1!. ~I1.ci~~g- --?.?.?.:~~...?.M.<?..~!l~.?.()!.!f?.~()~!:'1:~!l~~~~~~~ -~!l!~!..~.i.!l~~- ~-?.Y.~.~:i:t.~!l~.~- --- ---- - - ---- ---- - ----?.?. 8 Der Faktor" Mensch im Portfolio-Management 93 ~:-~...:v'!.~~ -~'.l:i1.si_~~~!.cl~~--~?.~!f()~~:~.~~-~~i1!. ~~-~~!~!.~_::_e_~]?_e_i~p~~l ~~ -~:.?... Y()I1. 13.e_i_~p_ie_~~!l.e_iI1~!..~~~~!~~f!~?.?.9.~~f()~_<?P.~'.l:Il~Il-~.J-~-~I1~!.l... ~?. 8.3 Dos und Don'ts 98 - ~}""'"<'- - - 8.4 Die Menschen aktiv einbinden 101 3-_-s A~~-~i-~k~-~g~~ -~i~~~~-~t~"ig~~i-~!t~~- P~~'ifuii~M~~g~~~~t~ -;;~t-<li~ -- - - ----------------- - unternehmenssteuerung 101 ~:.? SJ:t.~.!l~~-~!l~~~~-~-~~-~~~2- --- - - ---- - -- - ------- ------- --- ------ - ---102 ~:~}... Y!.!~~~!~~-~-~!i~~~!~I1_ fy~-~~!.l.~.il -~!~<?.1.~~~~-~!:!.l.Y~!.~~-~-~~!.l-~-~l?.~()~e-~~- ---- - --- _104 ~:.?:.?:... Y~!.~!l~~!.~I1-~-~P.!.~~~-~~~ -~~~JJ~-~E~I1-~?.?:_~~~-~~~~-~.Il..---- -------- ------- _10s 8. 7 Der Mensch im Spannungsfeld. 106 - ---- - ----- -- ------- - -- --- ---- -- - -- -- - -- - ---- -- - --- --- ~-"!'...,ir't... _..... ~--- - -------- ------------ --- --------- - --- 8.8 Die Unternehmenskultur 108 --------- -- ------------ ---------------- ~: -~}... Y!.~~- ~~~-~-u..1?.~.cl~~!~~.l!?~e.~.ile.~~~~~~~j-~~?...- -- 109 ~:_8_._2...!?.~~ -~~cl~~!~il~_cl~!..~()j_~-~!~~-l_!~~ -~~~.?.!()l!:~-~p.()!.~_f()!~()~-~~il~~~~-~-il~~~j~!._110 ~:?... ~ej_l_~_!lv:~.r~!~~-ci!li~~-ilcl.~~!.~9?_1~~~-~e_i!~p.!.o.~l- ~~~-~O.!:~~<?.lA?.~~~~~!~..--... 112 8
9 Befähigung im Projekt- und Portfolio-Management - Erfahrungen, Lösungsansätze, Erfolgsfaktoren 117 9.1 Pm~~~!~r&~:~t~111~~x-~-~~?_l_i 11 - --- - - ---------------- -------- ---- - -- -- - - -- - -- - ----- -- -- ------ - ------ -- ---1i1 9:2 _ -~f~$~~-c:j:e.~-~?.i~~~p.()~t-~?.~!()~!?.m~-~m~_t?:~-~~it_e_r -------------- - - ------ -- - -.}_~~ '5~~~~~\~1~f~ n. G'emeinsame Befähi~~-~- Y()l1.~l1f_~-~-~-~-~-~e.~n. _l1n.~- ~<?.i.e.~!_1_~_~!~~11------ ---- - ---- - ---- ----- - - --~~ - ~~~~-~-<?-~~-l~_n._~~-~!~~e.n..?_!~~~~~9-~_r11... ------- -- -- -------------- -- ----- -- ii! - - -~ ----- - -- -- --------------------------------------- -- -------------------------------------------------------- -! 10 Und dann war da noch der Mensch 125 ~~~~!~<i~_y()ll_~~~-~~~-~------ ----- - - ----- -- ----- - - -- - --- --- --- --- - - ------ - - --- -- --- --- -- - ------- 10.i Sie sind nicht alleine... 126 i.?_._{~:~{~~~i :~~~~i~:i~t :~fu :~~~~:::::::::::::::::: : :::::: :::: : :::::::: : ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~i l~::~~!~i~~s~;~,:~~~~~~~~:~[~ n 11 Kennzahlen und Informationen für optimale Entscheidungen 131 11.l Die Wahrheit über Kennzahlen -U1 ~ - Ii;ü::::~x~:~~~~~~~~~:~:~i~~~~bx~~~t:i~:~x~~ :::::: : ::: : :::::::: : ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :: ::::::::~ ~-~:~:_? ~11X()~_Ir1~!!()11.~_n. _1:l:n.~_Ke1111_~?:~~-~-i:i_ -~!<i!.l.d.~~-~-~~~-~-~~11-~- ~~!.L-M_1:l:~-~ ------------- - - - - - -- - B ~~:~---- --~?.i~~~e_!1~-~?. i?_r~~-~~-~!-~ch~p_fy11_~-~~~~-~~~~~~~~~-~!~~~-n. ----~~~ ~:~ Mi?.~-~~~_h.e_~~-i:i_n.z_~~l1 -~- ~-ll~~!-~~-~~-~-~~~i\-~9_9_?.~ll~~l1?:~.~~!1... ~~ 11.4 Was Informationen und Kennzahlen im laufenden Prozess leisten müssen ~ ~-~:~:~ I!1_~?.~.Ir1~~()11_~_n._1:l:n.~.IC~l111.z?:~~~I1.fyr_9_~~--~()j~;k_t~il1~!~1.l-~.~1.l!l.~!~.~~~~~-~()l1 ~~~ 1_~:~:~.--IC~I1_1:1_Z(l?_~~n.-~~-c:J:~~-~~j_e_~t~~!1s~~-1:l:~-~~~-i_I[l_l?.~!-~-~------ --- ------ --- ------- - -- - ----------------~~ ~~:~:~---~-~~-d.~~~- ~~-~!l-~_n._d.~~-?.-_i_si;k()~-~-n.~~~~~!l~~-!~-~?.i.~~!j?.?.~_!ko_l~?....----' - - ---_}~~ ~.~:'.! :~?.()_~!.~()!~()~!5.~~~-n. ------- - ------- - ------------- -------- ---- ---------------------------------- ' 1 gz ~~:'.!:?.... ~~Il~~lp~()i~~~~-~i~~Il- ~-~~~~t~11_ 1.l!l.d..~llf_?.()~!!?.li()~~-~-n.~.-~1.l~!fri.~~~!1... ~~ ~.~:~:... ~-~.!~~~~!~~-~()i~~~~-i.~~~~!l...------- - ------- - -------------------- ------ ------ --- -..!11 ~1:~:7 ~()i~~~p.()~!k<?.~~() -~is.~~?.~(ll1_~_~_e_ir1e.!1t_:-:~~11.!3~~~r_a_~_ 'l()i1_!?.~(li1!l.~-~-f.~~~~--- -- -- ~ ~-~ : '.!:~--- ~11-~?.~.Ir1~!~()!l_~-~ -1:1.n.~.IC~l111~?:~~-e_i:ify~_ 9_~e l!~-~~t~llil~~p~~-~~-- --- ----------- - ---- -- -------~~ 11.4. 9 Beispiele für die Interpretation von Informationen zur Umsetzung des Proi e ktportfol ios 172 11.5 Finanzkennzahlen im Prozess 177 ~ 9
12 Key Performance Indikatoren im Projektportfolio-Management 181 ~-?..1:~~-~~!~a.~_Y?.~-~-~l1~.1:... ----------------- - ~.?:.~ ------~-~~---- - - -~ - -~------- - -- - - -' --- - -- ~-~_1 12.1.1 Projektportfolio-Management- im Spannungsfeld von Strategie und ---- --- ~P..~-~~~Y.~E.Y~~--- - -------------------- -- ---- - -------------------- - ~?~ ~}:~...?.!!.a.!~~-~~~-~~~!... ~~~ _1?_._l} I?.?:~.!a.~~!:!':1.?..r:?.i~~~P.~.1:!_~<?.!!<?~-~?:~a.~~I1l.~.z:t.t _8l_ l'_r~j!:~-~~m-~.n.?:~~~~~~--- ---~?~ 12.1.4 Portfoliol.ite le. 184 i~~i; ~:::~~!~~~~. -~~4.L::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::i~~ 1_?_._2 ~~~ -~~~ -~r..ci~.?..r:~j~~~r.!~<?.~<?~~?:~a.~~i1l!:~~-a_l:l_f~~?-~.u.!. ~.i~~--- - ---- ~?.?. ~-?}_._~---~-~~~P-~-~~~-~-~-~ _fy_r: _ci~~ -~~_fc.l~_r:~_~c-~-~-~ -~1:1-~il.1:1. Y~~-~~-~-------- -- -- 1~?. ~:.?:.?... ~i~~!--~~!.~~.<?.~~~~!:... ~??. 12.2.3 Welche Prozesse auf Portfolioebene ablaufen 188.1?:.?:.~..?.!!.~~~~ -Ig'~~ -~~-~ -1?.<?.~-~!9~-~<?.ill1~ill1........ ~?.9..1?:.?.:?...?.9.~~<?.~~!()~9.~~--~~-?.~~1:1!:.1:l1~JE9.P.~.1:?:~Y~ -~~-~ ----- -- - -- -------~9.9. -~?:.?.:?... ~ll~-~~~~~~i:.~~~-~!-~_i_~-------- -- - - - --- -- -- ---- ------- ~9.?. ~:.?:.?... Y<?.1:ill15.S~~~~~~-~~ -~ -~a.~-~-e-~s.~~ -~~.1:~1:1~~~~~i,ili~~~.1:l1~~--- ---- ------ --- ~9.?..1?:.?.-.?... I?.~-~ -~9j_~-~~-1:1-~~~-n. -~_l1!.l'<?.r:t_fc.!~<?~?_e_n.e ~_~sc:h~i_e~~~~- P~1:1-~~~-~!~!l...?.9.?. -~?:.?... 9.l1!~.!~!5..~~~~-~~-~~ -~_f?.!~~-~-a.~il~~~!l... ~9.?. 13 Reifegradanalyse Light" 211 13.1 Ihre Reifegradeinschätzung...?.~~ _1_?.-.?... ~_!:t_r_}'r.<?.i.~~!e?.~-~f~~?.~mil~~-~e-~~~~- ii~.l:t-~-~~ -~~5.~e-~f~~.1:?:~I1l()_cle_ll~ _r:~c-~~~~ -~~~().1:~-~~- -21? 13.3 Lernen, lernen, lernen - Erfolg durch einen kontinuierlichen Verbesserungsprozess (KvP) 220 14 Das Projekt- und Portfolio-Management erfolgreich implementieren 223 _1~-.!.... ~~-~~-~- ~r.?:~~~ -~~~ -Y.<?.".'.~~~!..~PJ.~-~~-~~~.1:l1~-~- ~l1 -~~a.~~<?.r~~-~?.... ~~ _1~._?. 9_r_l:l_f1:~la.~~?.. 1:1?..ci.~'.l:hI1l~?..~~~-~-ll~~~~- fy~-~~-f<?l~_r:~i<:h.~s_ l'9.~~!<?.!~_()_~!".1il~il.g_e_~e-~t... ~?.?. ~-~:?... ~~~<?.~!:-~:- ~.<?-~~-()-~~~p_..~f.l:~~~~~---- --- ----' -?.?.?. -~~"~ -----~-~~~~ -?. :_!?.P.~P.<?~~-~~~~-~~~--- - ---- --- --- -- ---- -?.?.~ ~-~:?...?.~_l:l-~~~...,,~~~-~- ~P.!~!':l.~?..~~~~-ll~~ -~~~--~()j _~~tp()_~~!<?!~()::!".1a.~a.~~:i:n.~.n.~~ --- ------?.3_1 -~~:?.:~...Y9.1:~~~!:!l.?~-~9:~-~-~p~~~~~~~-~~ --- -- -- - - - -- --- -- --- }~?. l_~:?.:?...?.~1:1.!~~!.~!~.r:a.~9.n.~-~ -~~~~P.!~I1l.~?..~~~-ll~!:1... ~~~ 15 Optimierungsmöglichkeiten durch Softwareeinsatz 235 -~?.~ --- - 9-~~-n.~~~~~~-~-~-~-~~ -~-<?.~~~~~!l-~~~ -~ -~<?.~.t~?.~~?.~~-?:n.a.~~i1l~!l~...?.~?. -~~:.?...?..t!~c:h.~~~-~-!~.!'.~~~h!'.'..~ -~?.~-~f.<?.1.i:~~~-~~?:~~i1l~~~-~?.~f.~?:~.~--- -- -?.~ 10
16 Erfolgsfaktoren für ein erfolgreiches Portfolio-Management 251 16.1 ~!:f()l~~f(i~_t()r.~e_i:isch~.r;?_?_~ 16.2 E:rfolgsfaktor Methoden 253 1~} ßrfolgsfaktor Prozesse ------------------------------------ ~ -~~ 16.4 ~f()l~~f~_~()r_:!~~()~-<?.~~~----- -------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - ----- ~~~ 17 Wertschöpfung des Portfolio-Managements 259 17.1 Aus~angssituation/Fakten 259 17.~!~!?p_fy~-~-~-~-~-~~-~~-~-1:1fCi~~()~-~-~_i_!Il_~()~_~f()J_i_()~Jv1:Ci~.~-~-e!Il~I1!?.?.9. l!! ~~E~~~~~P..f~~-~-~P!?_~~~~~~!~-~~ -P.-~~~~!?.?.9.!?:~:~.--f':l~t_z~~lcJ:~t-~-~~~~_i~~-<:l-~-~-~()!:tK()li()~-~~1:1~~~~~~~-i_!Il_tJ~.e _r~-~~~-~- ---- --------- 264 18 Wertschöpfung von zentralen Projekt-Management-Organisationen 267 ~~~.1!Ci.~-~()~_!<?.~~~~-~-s-~~-!~_J:l:!~I1---------------------- -------------------------------------------------------- 18.1 Ausgangslage 267 18.2 Generelle, übergeordnete Aufgaben einer zentralen.. -~()i~~~~jv1:ci~_a_i;;_~-!il~i1t_~()r.~~i1~~~~-o-~ --------------------------------------------------- ---------- --------- -----?.?.?. 18.3 Generelle, übergeordnete Ziele einer zentralen Projekt-Management-Organisation 268 -~------ --------------- - ---------- ----- ----------- ---------- ------------ ----------- ----------- ---------------------------- ---------- -------- 18.4 Wertorientierung 270 ---t-- - -------------------------------------------------------------------- - -- ------------------------------------------------------------------------ E~~~:~1;:~~~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~1... ~--~~~~~~!:~~-i:i:!~~l ----------------- ------------------ -~?.?. ~~~-~-~-J:l:!.'.':<?.~~r.f9l_~-~K~!()E~I1_fii_~_z_~-~~-~e- -~~() ~?.~ 19 Fallstudie: Strategische Investitionsprojekte - Implementierung eines Projektportfolio-Managements 277 ~~~~~~.1!Ci.~-~()~_!v1:()_r.~~~-~~-J:l:~~~~~r. 19.1 Das Referenzunternehmen 277 _..... ':-" t---~~~~~~!<?.~~-~-~~:r.i:~---------------------------- ----------------- ---- -------------------------- - - -------- -~?.?. ~:::::~~~;i~~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::~~~ ~:~-----~~~~~ -k.!~~-~-~-~n.!~~;t:t-~-~~~i_l-~-~!'.".~~~--------------- ---- ----- ------ - -- ------------------ - - ------------- ---------~~-~ t~~-----~j~~!p.!~~~------- ----- ---------------------------------------------------------------- ----- ---------- -------} ~-~!.:?.... ~~!~~~~-~PE!?~~-~~------ ---- ------- --------------------------------- ----- ---------------------------------- - -------------------- ~?. ~~:?. ~~n.~..p.~~-~-~~!_i3:_isi~~:r_l:~-~~-~-<?j_e_~!~~-l!'.!~!i()~- ------ ---------- ---------- ----- -- -- - ----~~~ ~~:?.... ~-~~~~~-~()~_~()i~~!~~!'.".~~~~~i_l~~i_l l?_~-~~~~-y()f.~~~~~;t:t-~-~---------- -- --------- --- - - -- ------- ----~~~ _1_~:~~----Y!?r.~-~~9:.N.~9'.!~~~-~-~~~-~-~-~~<?.i.~~!P..<?.~-~~c:>l_i<?.~J.1:.a_n.~~~-~~I_l~-~----------------- - -- ----- -------------?.?.?.. 19.11 Fazit 286 11
20 Projektbegriffe innerhalb der Normen und Standards interpretiert 287 -~ ~~ -~~ -~~~<?.?.~.!~-~!-~<?. _ -... ~j_~-~!-~! -~~-~~~j-~-~!~~ -~-~-~ ----------------- ------------------ - ---------------------- -- -- ----------------------- ~?.?. 20.2 Proiekt 288 -- ----~i~!~:~-~-~-~-~~~!--------------------------- ----------------------------- - ------------------ -- ------------------------~~ ~:~-----~~~p_~j~~-~~~-~-~~~~~!!11~ ---------------------------------------------- ------ ----------------------------------------?.~~ ~~----J~i~~-~~)-~.<?-~.~~-~:~~-~-~~-~~~!,,,_,?.~9. ~ ~----- ~<?.i~~~~~!f<?.~<?.~!'.._1:~~~~~~-~i1~ --------------------------------- - -- -------------------------------- --------------?.~9. ~z ---- ~~~!jj~~i!!~~:f.<?_~~~~----------------------------------------------------- -------------- -- ---------------------?.~?. ~-----~i~~~:~~-~-~-~-~~~!-~<?~~~~ ------------------ ------ - ------ ----------------------- --------- ----------------------- ~~3-21 Portfolio-Management - Gesamtfazit 295 22 Glossar 297 Die Autoren 303 Abbildungsverzeichnis 305 Literaturverzeichnis 309 Stichwortverzeichnis 311 12